4 Integumentary System

A sebaceous gland is a type of oil gland that is found all over the body and helps to lubricate and waterproof the skin and hair. Most sebaceous glands are associated with hair follicles. They generate and excrete sebum, a mixture of lipids, onto the skin surface, thereby naturally lubricating the dry and dead layer of keratinized cells of the stratum corneum, keeping it pliable. The fatty acids of sebum also have antibacterial properties, and prevent water loss from the skin in low-humidity environments. The secretion of sebum is stimulated by hormones, many of which do not become active until puberty. Thus, sebaceous glands are relatively inactive during childhood.

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All systems in the body accumulate subtle and some not-so-subtle changes as a person ages. Among these changes are reductions in cell division, metabolic activity, blood circulation, hormonal levels, and muscle strength (see Figure 6.4). In the skin, these changes are reflected in decreased mitosis in the stratum basale, leading to a thinner epidermis. The dermis, which is responsible for the elasticity and resilience of the skin, exhibits a reduced ability to regenerate, which leads to slower wound healing. The hypodermis, with its fat stores, loses structure due to the reduction and redistribution of fat, which in turn contributes to the thinning and sagging of skin.

The accessory structures also have lowered activity, generating thinner hair and nails, and reduced amounts of sebum and sweat. A reduced sweating ability can cause some elderly to be intolerant to extreme heat. Other cells in the skin, such as melanocytes and dendritic cells, also become less active, leading to a paler skin tone and lowered immunity. Wrinkling of the skin occurs due to breakdown of its structure, which results from decreased collagen and elastin production in the dermis, weakening of muscles lying under the skin, and the inability of the skin to retain adequate moisture.

The integumentary system is susceptible to a variety of diseases, conditions, and injuries. These range from annoying but relatively benign bacterial or fungal infections that are categorized as disorders, to skin cancer and severe burns, which can be fatal. In this section, you will learn several of the most common skin conditions.

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General Diseases, Disorders and Conditions

Eczema

A common skin disorder is eczema  Eczema is an inflammatory condition and occurs in individuals of all ages. Acne involves the clogging of pores, which can lead to infection and inflammation, and is often seen in adolescents. Other disorders, include seborrheic dermatitis (on the scalp), psoriasis, fungal infections, cold sores, impetigo, scabies, hives, and warts (Betts, et al., 2013).

Eczema is an allergic reaction that manifests as dry, itchy patches of skin that resemble rashes (see Figure 6.5). It may be accompanied by swelling of the skin, flaking, and in severe cases, bleeding. Symptoms are usually managed with moisturizers, corticosteroid creams, and immunosuppressants (Betts, et al., 2013).

One of the most talked about diseases is skin cancer. Most cancers are identified by the organ or tissue in which the cancer originates. One common form of cancer is skin cancer.

In general, cancers result from an accumulation of DNA mutations. These mutations can result in cell populations that do not die when they should and uncontrolled cell proliferation that leads to tumors. Although many tumors are benign, some metastasize. Cancers are characterized by their ability to metastasize.

It requires about 10 days after initial sun exposure for melanin synthesis to peak, which is why pale-skinned individuals tend to suffer sunburns of the epidermis initially. Dark-skinned individuals can also get sunburns, but are more protected than are pale-skinned individuals. Too much sun exposure can eventually lead to wrinkling due to the destruction of the cellular structure of the skin, and in severe cases, can cause sufficient DNA damage to result in skin cancer. When there is an irregular accumulation of melanocytes in the skin, freckles appear. Moles are larger masses of melanocytes, and although most are benign, they should be monitored for changes that might indicate the presence of cancer (see Figure 6.7).

Basal Cell Carcinoma (BCC)

Basal cell carcinoma is a form of cancer that affects the mitotically active stem cells in the stratum basale of the epidermis. It is the most common of all cancers that occur in the United States and is frequently found on the head, neck, arms, and back, which are are as that are most susceptible to long-term sun exposure. Although UV rays are the main culprit, exposure to other agents, such as radiation and arsenic, can also lead to this type of cancer. Wounds on the skin due to open sores, tattoos, burns, etc. may be predisposing factors. Basal cell carcinomas start in the stratum basale and usually spread along this boundary. At some point, they begin to grow toward the surface and become an uneven patch, bump, growth, or scar on the skin surface (see Figure 6.8). Like most cancers, basal cell carcinomas respond best to treatment when caught early. Treatment options include surgery, freezing (cryosurgery), and topical ointments.

Squamous Cell Carcinoma (SCC)

Squamous cell carcinoma is a cancer that affects the keratinocytes of the stratum spinosum and presents as lesions commonly found on the scalp, ears, and hands (see Figure 6.9). It is the second most common skin cancer. The American Cancer Society reports that two of 10 skin cancers are squamous cell carcinomas, and it is more aggressive than basal cell carcinoma. If not removed, these carcinomas can metastasize. Surgery and radiation are used to cure squamous cell carcinoma.

Melanoma

A melanoma is a cancer characterized by the uncontrolled growth of melanocytes, the pigment-producing cells in the epidermis. Typically, a melanoma develops from a mole. It is the most fatal of all skin cancers, as it is highly metastatic and can be difficult to detect before it has spread to other organs. Melanomas usually appear as asymmetrical brown and black patches with uneven borders and a raised surface (see Figure 6.10). Treatment typically involves surgical excision and immunotherapy.

Autoimmune system disorders cause an over activity of the immune system. The the body attacks and damages its own tissues . (Web MD).

Psoriasis

Psoriasis is a chronic autoimmune disorder that results in patches of thick red skin with the appearance of silvery scales. These patches can be found on elbows, knees, scalp, low back, face, feet, fingernails, toenails and even the mouth. Psoriasis can be confused with other skin disease so a dermatologist is the best physician to diagnosis psoriasis. Treatments may include creams, ointments, ultraviolet light therapy and medication (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2018).  To learn more, visit the Center for Disease Control and Prevention’s web page on psoriasis.

Autoimmune Disease Pop Quiz

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Bacterial Infections

Term	Word Breakdown	Description
abscess Ab-ses		A localized collection of pus, usually caused by an infection. (https://medlineplus.gov/abscess.html)
acne Ak-nee		A skin condition that occurs when your pores become plugged with oil and dead skin cells. It causes pimples, blackheads, and whiteheads. (https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/acne/symptoms-causes/syc-20368047).
cellulitis sel-yuh-lIE-tuhs		A common bacterial skin infection that causes redness, swelling, and pain in the infected area of the deeper layers of the skin. If untreated, it can spread and cause serious health problems. Good wound care and hygiene are important for preventing cellulitis. https://www.cdc.gov/groupastrep/diseases-public/Cellulitis.html#:~:text=Cellulitis%20is%20a%20common%20bacterial,Many%20bacteria%20can%20cause%20cellulitis
folliculitis fuh-lik-yuh-lIE-tuhs	-itis inflammation follicul/o follicle	inflammation of the hair follicles, usually caused by infection or irritation (https://www.webmd.com/skin-problems-and-treatments/what-is-folliculitis)
impetigo im-puh-TIE-go		A common and highly contagious skin infection that mainly affects infants and young children. Bacteria infects the skin, they cause sores. Symptoms include red, itchy sores that break open and leak a clear fluid or pus for a few days. The bacteria can spread to others if someone touches those sores or comes into contact with fluid from the sores.(https://www.cdc.gov/groupastrep/diseases-public/impetigo.html)

Acne

Acne is a skin disturbance that typically occurs on areas of the skin that are rich in sebaceous glands (face and back). It is most common along with the onset of puberty due to associated hormonal changes, but can also occur in infants and continue into adulthood. Hormones, such as androgens, stimulate the release of sebum. An overproduction and accumulation of sebum along with keratin can block hair follicles. This plug is initially white. The sebum, when oxidized by exposure to air, turns black. Acne results from infection by acne-causing bacteria (Propionibacterium and Staphylococcus), which can lead to redness and potential scarring due to the natural wound healing process (see Figure 6.11) (Betts, et al., 2013).

Bacterial Infection? Who Am I!

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Fungal Infections

Ringworm

Tinea or dermatophytosis  dermat/o/phyt/o/sis often referred to as ringworm. The name ringworm presents as a circular rash that is itchy and red and can be found on various parts of the body. It is referred to by the location that it is found:

“Fun Guy” Quiz!

To learn more about ringworm, visit the Center for Disease Control and Prevention’s web page on fungal infections.

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Parasitic Infestations

As the skin is constantly exposed to the environment, it is a common portal of entry for parasites. Infestations with parasites can cause systemic diseases in humans but often result in cutaneous lesions which are on the rise in dermatology (News Medical Life Sciences)

Parasite, Para bite!

Skin Injuries

Integumentary System: Terms that Describe Skin Injuries

Because the skin is the part of our bodies that meets the world most directly, it is especially vulnerable to injury. Injuries include burns, wounds, as well as scars and calluses. They can be caused by sharp objects, heat, or excessive pressure or friction to the skin (Betts, et al., 2013).

Skin injuries set off a healing process that occurs in several overlapping stages.

• The first step to repairing damaged skin is the formation of a blood clot that helps stop the flow of blood and scabs over with time. Many different types of cells are involved in wound repair, especially if the surface area that needs repair is extensive.
• Before the basal stem cells of the stratum basale can recreate the epidermis, fibroblasts mobilize and divide rapidly to repair the damaged tissue by collagen deposition, forming granulation tissue.
• Blood capillaries follow the fibroblasts and help increase blood circulation and oxygen supply to the area.
• Immune cells, such as macrophages, roam the area and engulf any foreign matter to reduce the chance of infection (Betts, et al., 2013).

Scars and Keloids

Most cuts or wounds, with the exception of ones that only scratch the epidermis, lead to scar formation. Scarring occurs in cases in which there is repair of skin damage, but the skin fails to regenerate the original skin structure. Fibroblasts generate scar tissue in the form of collagen, and the bulk of repair is due to the basket-weave pattern generated by collagen fibers and does not result in regeneration of the typical cellular structure of skin. Instead, the tissue is fibrous in nature and does not allow for the regeneration of accessory structures, such as hair follicles, sweat glands, or sebaceous glands (Betts, et al., 2013).

Sometimes, there is an overproduction of scar tissue, because the process of collagen formation does not stop when the wound is healed; this results in a keloid. In contrast, scars that result from acne and chickenpox have a sunken appearance and are called atrophic scars (Betts, et al., 2013)

Scarring of skin after wound healing is a natural process and does not need to be treated further. Application of mineral oil and lotions may reduce the formation of scar tissue. However, modern cosmetic procedures, such as dermabrasion, laser treatments, and filler injections have been invented as remedies for severe scarring. All of these procedures try to reorganize the structure of the epidermis and underlying collagen tissue to make it look more natural (Betts, et al., 2013).

Bedsores and Stretch Marks

Skin and its underlying tissue can be affected by excessive pressure. One example of this is called a bedsore. Bedsores, also called decubitus ulcers, are caused by constant, long-term, unrelieved pressure on certain body parts that are bony, reducing blood flow to the area and leading to necrosis . Bedsores are most common in elderly patients who have debilitating conditions that cause them to be immobile. Most hospitals and long-term care facilities have the practice of turning the patients every few hours to prevent the incidence of bedsores. If left untreated bedsores can be fatal if they become infected (Betts, et al., 2013)

The skin can also be affected by pressure associated with rapid growth. A stretch mark results when the dermis is stretched beyond its limits of elasticity, as the skin stretches to accommodate the excess pressure. Stretch marks usually accompany rapid weight gain during puberty and pregnancy. They initially have a reddish hue, but lighten over time. Other than for cosmetic reasons, treatment of stretch marks is not required. They occur most commonly over the hips and abdomen (Betts, et al., 2013).

Calluses

When you wear shoes that do not fit well and are a constant source of abrasion on your toes, you tend to form a callus at the point of contact. This occurs because the basal stem cells in the stratum basale are triggered to divide more often to increase the thickness of the skin at the point of abrasion to protect the rest of the body from further damage. This is an example of a minor or local injury, and the skin manages to react and treat the problem independent of the rest of the body. Calluses can also form on your fingers if they are subject to constant mechanical stress, such as long periods of writing, playing string instruments, or video games. A corn is a specialized form of callus. Corns form from abrasions on the skin that result from an elliptical-type motion (Betts, et al., 2013).

Burns

A burn results when the skin is damaged by intense heat, radiation, electricity, or chemicals. The damage results in the death of skin cells, which can lead to a massive loss of fluid. Dehydration, electrolyte imbalance, and renal and circulatory failure follow, which can be fatal. Burn patients are treated with intravenous fluids to offset dehydration, as well as intravenous nutrients that enable the body to repair tissues and replace lost proteins. Another serious threat to the lives of burn patients is infection. Burned skin is extremely susceptible to bacteria and other pathogens, due to the loss of protection by intact layers of skin (Betts, et al., 2013).

Burn Classification

Burns are sometimes measured in terms of the size of the total surface area affected. This is referred to as the rule of nines, which associates specific anatomical areas with a percentage that is a factor of nine (see Figure 6.12) (Betts, et al., 2013).

Burns are also classified by the degree of their severity.

• A first-degree burn is a superficial burn that affects only the epidermis. Although the skin may be painful and swollen, these burns typically heal on their own within a few days. Mild sunburn fits into the category of a first-degree burn.
• A second-degree burn goes deeper and affects both the epidermis and a portion of the dermis. These burns result in swelling and a painful blistering of the skin. It is important to keep the burn site clean and sterile to prevent infection. If this is done, the burn will heal within several weeks.
• A third-degree burn fully extends into the epidermis and dermis, destroying the tissue and affecting the nerve endings and sensory function. These are serious burns that may appear white, red, or black; they require medical attention and will heal slowly without it.
• A fourth-degree burn is even more severe, affecting the underlying muscle and bone.

Oddly, third and fourth-degree burns are usually not as painful because the nerve endings themselves are damaged. Full-thickness burns cannot be repaired by the body, because the local tissues used for repair are damaged and require debridement, or amputation in severe cases, followed by grafting of the skin from an unaffected part of the body, or from skin grown in tissue culture for grafting purposes. Skin grafts are required when the damage from trauma or infection cannot be closed with sutures or staples (Betts et al., 2013).

Skin Injuries Activity

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Conditions of the Sweat Glands

Term	Word Breakdown	Description
anhidrosis	-osis condition -an without; lacking hidr/o sweat	Not being able to sweat. normally
diaphoresis die-uh-fuhr-rEE-suhs	-esis state or condition diaphor/o sweat phor/o to bear	Excessive sweating without an obvious cause, such as heat or exercise (https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/321663)

Sweaty Conditions

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Conditions of the Hair and Nails

Term	Word Breakdown	Description
alopecia al-uh-pEE-shuh		baldness
hirsutism hUHR-suh-tiz-uhm		Condition where women have thick, dark hair on their face, neck, chest, tummy, lower back, buttocks or thighs (https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/hirsutism/)
onychomycosis	-osis condition onych/o nail myc/o fungus	nail fungus

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