3.2 The Appeals

Ethos (referred to as ethics or credibility) is used as a means of convincing an audience via the authority of the writer. This credibility can come from one of two places. A writer can have pre-established credibility. That is, their name is recognizable and carries with it a certain amount of believability or trustworthiness.

Even people who are considered popular celebrities have some level of pre-establish credibility depending on the topic and context in which the discussion is taking place. However, for most writers, the ethos they have is not established simply by placing their name on the paper or approaching the microphone. For many academics, ethos is determined by the tone, style, and sources or support they use to make their argument. Ethos developed in this manner included two dimensions: competence and trustworthiness.

Competence^[2] refers to the perception of an author’s expertise in relation to the topic being discussed. An author can enhance his or her perceived competence by presenting an argument based on solid research that is well organized and logically sound. Competent authors must know the content of their topic/argument and be able to effectively deliver that content.

Trustworthiness^[3] refers to the degree that audience members perceive an author to be presenting accurate, credible information in a non-manipulative way. Perceptions of trustworthiness come largely from the content of the argument. Trustworthy authors consider the audience throughout the argument-making process, present information in a balanced way, do not coerce the audience, cite credible sources, and follow the general principles of communication ethics. (Stiff & Mongeau, 2003)^[4].

When someone asks, “What right do you have to speak on this issue?” or “What are your qualifications to speak on this matter?” They are asking for character and credibility, or ethos.

^[5]Logos

The word logos means “logic.” In academic writing, we connect the idea of ‘logic’ to the evidence we use to support our argument. Authors employ logos by presenting credible information as supporting material and citing their sources during their argument.  Research shows that messages are more persuasive when arguments and their warrants are made explicit (Stiff & Mongeau, 2003). Carefully choosing supporting material that is verifiable, specific, and unbiased can help a speaker appeal to logos. Speakers can also appeal to logos by citing personal experience and providing the credentials and/or qualifications of sources of information (Cooper & Nothstine, 1996)^[6]. Presenting a rational and logical argument is important, but speakers can be more effective persuaders if they bring in and refute counterarguments. The most effective persuasive messages are those that present two sides of an argument and refute the opposing side, followed by single argument messages, followed by messages that present counterarguments but do not refute them (Stiff & Mongeau, 2003)^[7]. In short, by clearly showing an audience why one position is superior to another, speakers do not leave an audience to fill in the blanks of an argument, which could diminish the persuasive opportunity and the author’s credibility (ethos).

When someone asks, “What is your argument based on?” They are asking for logical support. For academic writers, the appeal to logos is derived mainly from our use of credible sources and the subsequent discussion concerning why that evidence supports our opinion. 

Pathos

Pathos refers to emotional appeals. Stirring emotions in an audience is a way to get them involved in the argument, and involvement can create more opportunities for persuasion and action. Pathos can be expressed through words, pictures, or physical gestures.  Because pathos is employed to specifically trigger the emotional states of the readers and listeners, it is powerful, but can be an incredibly manipulative, method of appeal. Reading in the paper that a house was burglarized may get your attention, but think about how different your reaction would be if you found out it was your own home. Intentionally stirring someone’s emotions to get them involved in an argument that has little substance would be unethical; however, speakers have taken advantage of people’s emotions to get them to support causes, buy products, or engage in behaviors that they might not if given the chance to see the faulty logic.

Since audiences may be suspicious of an argument that is solely based on emotion, effective speakers should use emotional appeals that are logically convincing. Emotional appeals are effective when you are trying to influence a behavior or you want your audience to take immediate action (Stiff & Mongeau, 2003)^[9]. However, emotions lose their persuasive effect more quickly than other types of persuasive appeals. Since emotions are often reactionary, they fade relatively quickly when a person is removed from the provoking situation (Fletcher, 2001)^[10].

^[13] Writers typically use all three appeals, ethos, logos, and pathos, within an argument because depending too heavily on only one appeal can lead to issues that will hinder the argument from being successful at conveying its purpose to its intended audience. For example, an argument built primarily on ethos might lead the audience to think that a speaker is full of himself or herself, a speech full of facts and statistics appealing only to logos would result in information overload, and an argument that is saturated with appeals to pathos may be seen as overly biased or intentionally manipulative.