Introduction*

We have been discussing the Backward Design model for instructional planning. We have looked at the first two stages of the model that emphasized articulating our desired results through developing learning objectives and identifying assessment tools appropriate to gather evidence of student learning. Before moving on to Stage 3, where we start planning our instruction, we need to discuss how we might accommodate student needs during assessments and instruction.

Today, teachers are continually faced with the challenge of effectively reaching out to their classroom of students who span the spectrum of learning readiness, personal interests, skills, knowledge, and perspective. We know that not all students are alike. Based on this knowledge, differentiated instruction applies an approach to teaching and learning that gives students multiple options for taking in information and making sense of ideas. Differentiated instruction is a teaching theory based on the premise that instructional approaches should vary and curriculum be adapted to individual and diverse students in classrooms (Tomlinson, 2014). The model of differentiated instruction requires teachers to be flexible in their approach to teaching and adjust the curriculum and presentation of information to learners rather than expecting students to modify themselves for the curriculum. Many teachers and teacher educators have recently identified differentiated instruction as a method of helping more students in diverse classroom settings experience success. Tomlinson states, “Teachers who differentiate provide specific alternatives for individuals to learn as deeply as possible and as quickly as possible without assuming that one student’s road map to learning is identical to anyone else’s” (Tomlinson, 2014).

The following sections examine information on the theory and research behind differentiated instruction and its intersection with Universal Design for Learning (UDL), an educational framework based on research from the neurosciences and effective teaching practices designed to increase flexibility in teaching, decrease barriers, and optimize learning for all. We begin with an introduction to differentiated instruction by defining the construct, then identify components and features by providing a sampling of considerations and curriculum applications and research evidence for effectiveness. Next, we introduce UDL and the connections with differentiated instruction in theory and specific lesson examples. The chapter concludes with general guidelines for the implementation of UDL and a list of web resources that provide further information about differentiated instruction.

Differentiated Instruction*

To differentiate instruction is to recognize students’ varying background knowledge, readiness, language, preferences in learning and interests; and to react responsively. As Tomlinson notes in her book Differentiated Classroom: Responding to the Needs of All Learners (2014), teachers in a differentiated classroom begin with their current curriculum and engaging instruction. Then they ask, what will it take to alter or modify the curriculum and instruction so that so that each learner comes away with knowledge, understanding, and skills necessary to take on the next important phase of learning. Differentiated instruction is a process of teaching and learning for students of differing abilities in the same class. Teachers, based on characteristics of their learners’ readiness, interest, and learning profile, may adapt or manipulate various elements of the curriculum (content, process, product, affect/environment). Therefore, differentiated instruction is often referred to as responsive teaching that adjusts instruction based on ongoing assessment of students’ needs.

Identifying Components/Features

While Tomlinson and most recognize there is no magic or recipe for making a classroom differentiated, they have identified guiding principles, considered the “Pillars that Support Effective Differentiation”: Philosophy, Principles, and Practices. The premise of each is as follows:

The Philosophy of differentiation is based on the following tenets:

• (1) recognizing diversity is normal and valuable,
• (2) understanding every student has the capacity to learn,
• (3) taking responsibility to guide and structure student success,
• (4) championing every student entering the learning environment and assuring equity of access

The Principles identified that shape differentiation include—

• (1) creating an environment conducive to learning
• (2) identifying a quality foundational curriculum
• (3) informing teaching and learning with assessments
• (4) designing instruction based on assessments collected
• (5) creating and maintaining a flexible classroom

Teacher Practices are also essential to differentiation, highlighted as—

• (1) proactive planning to address student profiles
• (2) modifying instructional approaches to meet student needs
• (3) teaching up (students should be working just above their individual comfort levels)
• (4) assigning respectful tasks responsive to student needs—challenging, engaging, purposeful
• (5) applying flexible grouping strategies (e.g., stations, interest groups, orbital studies)

According to the authors of differentiated instruction, several key elements guide differentiation in the education environment through which teachers may differentiate instruction: content, process, product and affect/environment  (Tomlinson, 2014). These are described in the four sections below, and they help to serve as guidelines for forming an understanding of and developing ideas around differentiation of instruction.

Content

• Several elements and materials are used to support instructional content. These include acts, concepts, generalizations or principles, attitudes, and skills. The variation seen in a differentiated classroom is most frequently in the manner in which students gain access to important learning. Access to content is seen as key.
• Align tasks and objectives to learning goals. Designers of differentiated instruction view the alignment of tasks with instructional goals and objectives as essential. Goals are most frequently assessed by many state-level, high-stakes tests and frequently administered standardized measures. Objectives are frequently written in incremental steps resulting in a continuum of skills-building tasks. An objectives-driven menu makes it easier to find the next instructional step for learners entering at varying levels.
• Instruction is concept-focused and principle-driven. Instructional concepts should be broad-based, not focused on minute details or unlimited facts. Teachers must focus on the concepts, principles, and skills that students should learn. The content of instruction should address the same concepts with all students, but the degree of complexity should be adjusted to suit diverse learners.
• Clarify key concepts and generalizations. Ensure that all learners gain powerful understandings that can serve as the foundation for future learning. Teachers are encouraged to identify essential concepts and instructional foci to ensure that all learners comprehend.

Process

• Flexible grouping is consistently used. Strategies for flexible grouping are essential. Learners are expected to interact and work together as they develop knowledge of new content. Teachers may conduct whole-class introductory discussions of content big ideas followed by small group or paired work. Student groups may be coached from within or by the teacher to support completion of assigned tasks. Grouping of students is not fixed. As one of the foundations of differentiated instruction, grouping and regrouping must be a dynamic process, changing with the content, project, and on-going evaluations.
• Classroom management benefits students and teachers. To effectively operate a classroom using differentiated instruction, teachers must carefully select organization and instructional delivery strategies. In her text, How to Differentiate Instruction in Mixed-Ability Classrooms (2001), Carol Tomlinson identifies 17 key strategies for teachers to successfully meet the challenge of designing and managing differentiated instruction.
• Emphasize critical and creative thinking as a goal in lesson design. The tasks, activities, and procedures for students should require that they understand and apply meaning. Instruction may require supports, additional motivation; and varied tasks, materials, or equipment for different students in the classroom.

Products

• Initial and on-going assessment of student readiness and growth are essential. Meaningful pre-assessment naturally leads to functional and successful differentiation. Incorporating pre- and on-going assessment informs teachers so that they can better provide a menu of approaches, choices, and scaffolds for the varying needs, interests, and abilities that exist in classrooms of diverse students. Assessments may be formal or informal, including interviews, surveys, performance assessments, and more formal evaluation procedures.
• Use assessment as a teaching tool to extend rather than merely measure instruction. Assessment should occur before, during, and following the instructional episode; and it should be used to help pose questions regarding student needs and optimal learning.
• Students are active and responsible explorers. Teachers respect that each task put before the learner will be interesting, engaging, and accessible to essential understanding and skills. Each child should feel challenged most of the time.
• Vary expectations and requirements for student responses. Items to which students respond may be differentiated so that different students are able to demonstrate or express their knowledge and understanding in a variety of ways. A well-designed student product allows varied means of expression and alternative procedures and offers varying degrees of difficulty, types of evaluation, and scoring.

Affect/Environment

• Developing a learning environment. Establish classroom conditions that set the tone and expectations for learning. Provide tasks that are challenging, interesting, and worthwhile to students.
• Engaging all learners is essential. Teachers are encouraged to strive for the development of lessons that are engaging and motivating for a diverse class of students. Vary tasks within instruction as well as across students. In other words, an entire session for students should not consist of all lecture, discussion, practice, or any single structure or activity.
• Provide a balance between teacher-assigned and student-selected tasks. A balanced working structure is optimal in a differentiated classroom. Based on pre-assessment information, the balance will vary from class-to-class as well as lesson-to-lesson. Teachers should ensure that students have choices in their learning.

Differentiated instruction is an instructional process that has potential to positively impact learning by offering teachers means to provide instruction to a range of students in today’s classroom situations. The next section of this document introduces the reader to the theory and research behind Universal Design for Learning (UDL). We then investigate the links and connections between UDL and differentiated instruction. Additionally, we identify methods and materials that may be used to support the implementation of differentiated instruction in concert with the principles of UDL. Finally, a set of guidelines for UDL implementation is provided including a listing of web resources to provide further information on the concepts presented in this document.

An Introduction to Universal Design for Learning Applications*

Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is a theoretical framework developed by CAST (the Center for Applied Special Technology) to guide the design and development of learning environments that represent materials in flexible ways and offer a variety of options for learners to comprehend information, demonstrate their knowledge and skills, and be motivated to learn. Therefore, UDL is considered proactive teaching, emphasizing the creation of flexible learning environments that anticipate and address diverse learning needs. The concept of UDL was inspired by the universal design movement in architecture. This movement calls for the design of structures that anticipate the needs of individuals with disabilities and accommodate these needs from the outset. Universally designed structures are indeed more usable by individuals with disabilities, but in addition, they offer unforeseen benefits for all users. Curb cuts, for example, serve their intended use of facilitating the travel of those in wheelchairs, but they are also beneficial to people pushing strollers, young children, and even the average walker. And so, the process of designing for individuals with disabilities has led to improved usability for everyone.

The universal design movement changed how architects think about designing buildings. Similarly, UDL calls for a shift in how educators think about designing learning environments. Traditional curricula in printed text and new curricula that incorporate inaccessible digital technology present a host of barriers that limit learners’ access to information, ability to express knowledge, and ability to be engaged in learning. With printed text, learners without a well-developed ability to see, decode, attend to, or comprehend printed text are compelled to adapt to its ubiquity as best they can. Similarly, if new curricula in a digital medium are not fully accessible from the start, not all learners will be able to navigate, interact, comprehend, or express their knowledge.

What is even more detrimental to learning is that fixed, one-size-fits-all curricula are designed and developed to address the needs of mainstream learners and, consequently, disregard the diversity in skills, needs, and interests that individuals bring to learning. In contrast, a UDL curriculum is designed and developed to take full advantage of the inherent variability in individual learners. As a result, a UDL curriculum is innately flexible, and enriched with multiple media so that many paths are provided to develop the talents of all learners. In doing so, a UDL curriculum reduces barriers as well as optimizes the level of challenges and support to meet the needs of learners from the start.

The UDL framework is based on neuroscience research evidence that individual learners differ in how they are motivated (affective network), how they comprehend information (recognition network), and how they express what they know (strategic network). Whether the differences facilitate learning or become a detriment to learning depends largely on the educational context. If a learning environment is flexible and can be adjusted to match an individual’s strengths, then a characteristic that is a deficit in one learning context becomes an asset in another. The characteristics of a learner and the curriculum are not fixed entities, but continuously evolve together as the learner grows and progresses. As Meyers, Rose, and Gordon explain, “Success occurs when the learner and the curriculum interact in ways that help them both improve at the same time” (2014).

To guide educators in creating lessons, curricula, and learning systems that are engaging, maximize flexibility, and optimize learning, the three primary brain networks are translated into three UDL principles of design: 1) provide multiple means of engagement, 2) provide multiple means of representation, and 3) provide multiple means of action and expression (see Figure 1) (Rose, Meyer, & Gordon 2014).

Figure 1

The three UDL principles call for flexibility in relation to three essential facets of learning, each one orchestrated by a primary brain network. Each UDL principle is then expanded into UDL guidelines and checkpoints. The depth and comprehensiveness of the UDL guidelines can guide educators to build flexibility into all components of a curriculum—goals, methods, materials, and assessment—so that all students are supported in their access, participation, engagement, and ongoing monitoring of progress across all facets of learning.

What this means is that as teachers, we should be looking for ways to provide flexibility in the way our students access content (representation), engage in the learning process (engagement), and demonstrate learning (expression). For more information about UDL, consider the following resources and the self-guided learning module found at the end of this chapter.

• Read about Universal Design for Learning (UDL), its three principles, and how it benefits not just students with learning and attention issues but all students.
• Watch a video summary of UDL.
• Analyze a visual representation of UDL Guidelines. (For additional information, consider the Interactive Version of UDL Guidelines).
• Refer to the UDL FAQ Sheet to clarify what UDL is and what UDL is not.

Explore the suggestions on the “Getting Started with Universal Design for Learning” for ideas you might consider using in your future classroom.

Differentiated Instruction and the Three Universal Design for Learning Principles*

Differentiated instruction is well received as a classroom practice that may be well suited to the principles of UDL. The following section looks at the foundational principles of UDL: engagement, action and expression, and representation—to address how differentiated instruction coordinates with UDL principles. Certain instructional techniques are very effective in supporting different skills as students learn. Differentiated instruction is designed to keep the learner in mind when specifying the instructional episode.

Recognition networks. The UDL principle that focuses on representation and the importance of providing multiple, flexible methods of presentation when teaching indicates that no single teaching methodology for representing information will be satisfactory for every learner. The content guidelines for differentiated instruction support the UDL principle, provide multiple means of representation, in that they encourage the use of several elements and materials to support instructional content. A teacher following this principle might help students in a social studies class to understand the location of a state in the union by showing them a wall map or a globe, projecting a state map, or describing the location in words. Also, while preserving the essential content, a teacher could vary the difficulty of the material by presenting smaller or larger, simpler or more complex maps. For students with physical or cognitive disabilities, such a diversity of examples may be vital for them to access the pattern being taught. Other students may benefit from the same multiple examples by obtaining a perspective that they otherwise might not. In this way, a range of examples can help ensure that each student’s recognition networks can identify the fundamental elements characterizing a pattern.

This same use of varied content examples supports a recommended UDL Guideline: provide options for perception. A wide range of tools for presenting instructional content are available, especially in the digital environment; thus teachers may manipulate size, color contrasts, audio, and other features to develop examples in multiple media and formats. These can be saved for future use and flexibly accessed by different students depending on their needs and preferences.

Strategic networks. People find for themselves the most desirable method of learning strategies; therefore, teaching methodologies need to be varied. This kind of flexibility is key for teachers to help meet the needs of their diverse students, and this is reflected in the UDL principle provide multiple means of action and expression. Differentiated instruction recognizes the need for students to receive flexible models of skilled performance, which reflects the UDL Guideline provide options for expression and communication. As noted above, teachers implementing differentiated instruction are encouraged to demonstrate information and skills multiple times and at varying levels. As a result, learners enter the instructional episode with different approaches, knowledge, and strategies for learning. To successfully demonstrate the skills that they have learned, students need flexible opportunities for demonstrating skills. Differentiated instruction directly supports this UDL checkpoint by reminding teachers to provide multiple options for learning and expressing knowledge, including the degree of difficulty and the means of evaluation or scoring.

Affective networks. Differentiated instruction and UDL bear another important point of convergence: recognition of the importance of engaging learners in instructional tasks. UDL calls for motivating and sustaining learner engagement through flexible instruction, an objective that differentiated instruction supports very effectively. Differentiated instruction theory reinforces the importance of effective classroom management and reminds teachers of meeting the challenges of effective organizational and instructional practices. Therefore teachers are encouraged to offer choices of tools, adjust the level of difficulty of the material, and provide varying levels of scaffolding to gain and maintain learner attention during the instructional episode. These practices bear much in common with the UDL principle provide multiple means of engagement by offering choices of content and tools; providing adjustable levels of challenge, and offering a choice of learning context. By providing varying levels of scaffolding when differentiating instruction, students have access to varied learning contexts as well as choices about their learning environment.

In summary, differentiation and UDL are different but similar approaches to responding to the needs of learners. Effective teachers combine aspects of both approaches to set their classrooms up for success. In your classroom, you may find yourself planning specific means of differentiation in response to specific learner needs while also integrating a variety of choices to allow all learners a unique pathway to engage with content, interact during the lesson, or demonstrate learning. The key takeaway is that a one-size-fits-all model of education will most likely not be sufficient for your classroom.

Accommodations vs. Modifications

When teachers plan to assess their students, they must consider how they will ensure that all learners have equitable access to the assessment. To address this issue, teachers often resort to either providing accommodations or modifications during an assessment. Accommodations refer to any practice that provides students with disabilities access to instruction or assessment. An accommodation unlocks the activity in a way that does not alter the skill being assessed but allows the student to perform the task without the inference-distorting effects of their disability (Popham, 2017). Accommodations allow you as the teacher to collect the evidence you need to fully assess a student’s knowledge. Accommodations often align perfectly with the UDL principles.

In contrast, modifications alter learning tasks in a manner that lower expectations. Some students with Individualized Education Plans (IEP’s) may have specific modifications written into their plan. However, often the subset of students requiring modifications that reduce the expected level of learning required is very small. The majority of students with disabilities or English Language Learners will only need accommodations to help them either access information or demonstrate their learning. A key thing to remember when working with these student populations is that your goal is to have them achieve the same learning objectives as every other student.

Strategies for Students with Disabilities

When working with students with disabilities, it is common to provide accommodations that alter the presentation of information, student demonstration of understanding, assessment settings, and timelines for completion. Similar to the UDL Guidelines, accommodations for students with disabilities may include providing various methods to interact with information. For example, providing alternatives to text such as recordings and either tactile or visual models can allow students with hearing and visual impairments to interact with the content and help learners with cognitive disabilities access information. Along those same lines, providing students with options to demonstrate their understanding through assisted graphic organizers or even via oral report may allow you to see evidence of student learning that may not be possible on a standard constructed-response test. This is where you as a teacher can be creative in allowing students choice in how to demonstrate their learning. Lastly, some students may need accommodations in the physical environment to perform an assessment or even the time required to complete the task. Most of these options will be pre-defined for you by a student’s IEP, but as the teacher, you have the right to provide such accommodations for all your learners based on your professional opinion of their needs.

For more information, see the following resources:

• Review the Oklahoma Accommodations Guide
• Explore the digital version of the Accommodations Manual published by the Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO). Focus your attention on the following sections:
  • Section III: Step 2
  • Appendix B: Universal Features
• If you prefer, here is a PDF version of the Accommodations Manual. Focus your attention on the following sections:
  • Step 2: Learn about Accommodations for Instruction and Assessment
  • Fact Sheets 1-5 (Fact Sheet 5 gives suggested accommodations broken down by physical & cognitive disability)

Strategies for English Language Learners

Some schools are fortunate enough to have support staff that works directly with English Language Learners (ELL). Some schools are not so fortunate. Regardless, as a teacher, you should be aware of some basic things you can do to accommodate the needs of ELL’s. When providing learning activities or assessments in a written format, some ELL’s may need a version where the language load is reduced, in other words, written at a basic level of understanding. Providing dual-language dictionaries and the opportunity for recorded versions of the instructions may also prove helpful. Some ELL’s may have strengths in reading the English language but struggle writing their responses or vice versa. Therefore, providing students options in how to respond, such as orally or written in either English or their native language, may still provide you the opportunity to assess their knowledge of the skills and concepts without their proficiency in the English language interfering. Lastly, like your students with disabilities, ELL’s may benefit from extended time to complete learning tasks.

For more information, review the following resources:

• Investigate CCSSO’s Accommodation manual for ELL’s (PDF). Focus your attention on the following sections:
  • Step 2: Learn about Accommodations for Instruction and Assessment (p. 8-13)
  • Tool 3. Assessment Adaptation Grid (p. 31-38)
  • Tool 4. Accommodations from the Student’s Perspective (p. 39)
• Compare the recommendations from the CCSSO accommodation manuals to the practices and strategies used in schools across the country when working with ELL’s.
  • Lakewood City Schools
  • Project EXCELL (Kansas City)
  • Tulsa Public Schools

Strategies for Gifted Learners

The last group of students we focus on this week is often overlooked in the secondary classroom. Gifted students often are viewed as the top students in the class who complete all their work quickly, flawlessly, and effortlessly. Too often, we as the teacher ignore that we could, and should, be challenging this group instead of burdening them with extra work or tasks that do not extend their knowledge. Examples include extra worksheets or extensive use of peer tutoring. Instead, gifted learners should benefit from a curriculum that is accelerated, compacted, and extended. This means that gifted learners should be allowed to move through the curriculum at a pace that is comfortable for them and that gets compacted because they can skip the content they already show mastery of. This accelerating and compacting of the curriculum open the opportunity to extend the curriculum to deeper learning. All of this should be facilitated by the teacher and done in a group setting with students with similar strengths. This does not mean the gifted students sit in the back of the room, isolated from the class and the teacher. Gifted students should still participate in the class regularly, but there will be times that they are allowed to move on to more advanced material as the class works on the content they already understand.

For more information, review the following resources:

• Read what Carol Ann Tomlinson has to say about how to teach gifted learners.
• Analyze Strategies to Challenge Gifted Learners by Amy Azzam.

Consider the Gifted Education Strategies suggested by the National Association for Gifted Children.

Conclusion

Differentiated instruction, like UDL, has been developing in educational settings for multiple decades. They have both received significant recognition. When differentiation is combined with the practices and principles of UDL, it can provide teachers with both theory and practice to appropriately challenge the broad scope of students in classrooms today. Although educators are continually challenged by the ever-changing classroom profile of students, resources, and reforms, practices continue to evolve and the relevant research base should grow. And along with them grows the promise of differentiated instruction and UDL in educational practices.

Summarizing Key Understandings

Peer Examples

Suggested Activities

References & Attributions

Attribution: “Introduction”, Differentiated Instruction”, “An Introduction to Universal Design for Learning Applications”, and “Differentiated Instruction and the Three Universal Design for Learning Principles” were adapted from Hall, T., Vue, G., Strangman, N., & Meyer, A. (2004). Differentiated Instruction and Implications for UDL Implementation. Wakefield, MA: National Center on Accessing the General Curriculum. (Links updated 2014). Retrieved [9/23/2024] from http://aem.cast.org/about/publications/2003/ncac-differentiated-instruction-udl.html, licensed by CC BY-SA 4.0

CAST. (2019). About Universal Design for Learning [Website]. Retrieved from http://www.cast.org/

Meyer, A., Rose, D. H., & Gordon, D. (2014) Universal design for learning: Theory and practice. Wakefield, MA: CAST.

Popham, J. (2017). Classroom assessment: What teachers need to know (8th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.

Tomlinson, C. A. (2001). How to Differentiate Instruction in Mixed-Ability Classrooms (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: ASCD

Tomlinson, C. A. (2014). Differentiated Classroom: Responding to the Needs of All Learners (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: ASCD