Glossary

CHAPTER 1 – The Basics of Public Speaking

Public Speaking– an organized, face-to- face, prepared, intentional (purposeful) attempt to inform, entertain, or persuade a group of people (usually five or more) through words, physical delivery, and (at times) visual or audio aids.

Glossophobia– a severe fear of public speaking.

Communication– sharing meaning between two or more people.

Culture– the system of learned and shared symbols, language, values, and norms that distinguish one group of people from another.

Channel– the means through which a message gets from sender to receiver.

Feedback– direct or indirect messages sent from an audience (receivers) back to the original sender of the message.

Noise– anything that disrupts, interrupts, or interferes with the communication process.

Encode– the process of the sender putting his/her/their thoughts and feelings into words or other symbols.

Decode– the process of the listener or receiver understanding the words and symbols of a message and making meaning of them.

Symbol– a word, icon, picture, object, or number that is used to stand for or represent a concept, thing, or experience.

Denotative– the objective or literal meaning shared by most people using the word.

Connotative– the subjective or personal meaning the word evokes in people together or individually.

CHAPTER 2 – Listening in Public Speaking Settings

Hearing– the physical process in which sound waves hit the ear drums and send a message to the brain.

Listening– an active process where you are specifically making an effort to understand, process, and retain information.

Comprehensive Listening– listening focused on understanding and remembering important information from a public speaking message.

Empathetic Listening– listening for understanding the feelings and motivations of another person, usually with the goal of helping the person deal with a personal problem.

Appreciative Listening– a type of informed listening needed to listen to and interpret music, theater, or literature.

Critical Listening– listening to evaluate the validity of the arguments and information and deciding whether the speaker is persuasive and whether the message should be accepted.

Planned Redundancy– the use of a clear central idea statement, preview of the main points, connective statements, and overall summary in the conclusion to reinforce the main ideas or points of a speech; the deliberate repeating of structural aspects of speech.

Confirmation Bias– a tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that confirms one’s preconceptions.

CHAPTER 3 – Ethics in Public Speaking

Ethics– the branch of philosophy that involves determinations of what is right and moral.

Defamatory Speech– a false statement of fact that damages a person’s character, fame, or reputation.

Initial Credibility– a speaker’s credibility at the beginning of or even before the speech.

Derived Credibility– a speaker’s credibility and trustworthiness (as judged by the audience members) throughout the process of the speech, which also can range from point to point in the speech.

Terminal Credibility– a speaker’s credibility at the end of the speech.

Plagiarism– the act of using another person’s words or ideas without giving credit to that person.

CHAPTER 4 – Developing Topics for Your Speech

General Purpose– the broad, overall goal of a speech; to inform, to persuade, to entertain, etc.

Specific Purpose Statement– an infinitive phrase that builds upon the speaker’s general purpose to clearly indicate precisely what the goal of a given speech is.

Central Idea Statement– a statement that contains or summarizes a speech’s main points.

CHAPTER 5 – Organizing and Outlining Your Speech

Chronological pattern– an organizational pattern for speeches in which the main points are arranged in time order.

Spatial pattern– an organizational pattern for speeches in which the main points are arranged according to movement in space or direction.

Parallelism– the repetition of grammatical structures that correspond in sound, meter, and meaning.

Connectives– a phrase or sentence that connects various parts of a speech and shows the relationship between them.

Internal summaries– a type of connective that emphasizes what has come before and reminds the audience of what has been covered.

Internal previews– a type of connective that emphasizes what is coming up next in the speech and what to expect with regard to the content.

Transitions– a type of connective that serves as a bridge between disconnected (but related) material in a speech.

Signposts– a type of connective that emphasizes physical movement through the speech content and lets the audience know exactly where they are; commonly uses terms such as First, Second, Finally.

Bridging statements– a type of connective that emphasizes moving the audience psychologically to the next part of a speech.

CHAPTER 6 – Researching Your Speeches

Primary Research– new research, carried out to acquire data first-hand rather than from previously published sources to answer specific questions or issues and discover knowledge.

Primary Sources– information that is first-hand or straight from the source; information that is unfiltered by interpretation or editing.

Secondary Sources– information that is not directly from the firsthand source; information that has been compiled, filtered, edited, or interpreted in some way.

Periodicals– works that are published on a regular, ongoing basis, such as magazines, academic journals, and newspapers.

Peer-review– a review process in which other scholars have read a work of scholarly writing (usually articles, but sometimes books) and evaluated whether it meets the quality standards of a particular publication and/or discipline.

Chapter 7 – Supporting Your Speech Ideas

Probative– having the quality or function of proving or demonstrating something; affording proof or evidence.

Hypothetical Narrative– a story of something that could happen but has not happened yet.

Define– to set limits on what a word or term means, how the audience should think about it, and/or how you will use it.

Stipulated Definition– a definition with clearly defined parameters for how the word or term is being used in the context of a speech.

Kinesthetic– issues related to the movement of the body or physical activity.

Organic– feelings or issues related to the inner workings of the body.

Statistics– the collection, analysis, comparison, and interpretation of numerical data, understanding its comparison with other numerical data.

Mean– the mathematical average for a given set of numbers.

Median– the middle number in a given set of numbers.

Mode– the number that is the most frequently occurring within a given set of numbers.

Testimony– the words of others used as proof or evidence.

Expert– someone with recognized credentials, knowledge, education, and/or experience in a subject.

Peer testimony– any quotation from a friend, family member, or classmate about an incident or topic.

Perception– how people organize and interpret the patterns of stimuli around them.

Attention– focus on one stimulus while ignoring or suppressing reactions to other stimuli.

CHAPTER 8 – Informative Speaking

Informative Speech– a speech based entirely and exclusively on facts and whose main purpose is to inform rather than persuade, amuse, or inspire.

Irrefutable– a statement or claim that cannot be argued.

Opinion– a personal view, attitude, or belief about something.

CHAPTER 9 – Introductions and Conclusions

Attention Getter– the statement or question that piques the audience’s interest in what you have to say at the very beginning of a speech.

Anecdote– a brief account or story of an interesting or humorous event.

Rhetorical Question– a question to which no actual reply is expected.

Rapport– a relationship or connection a speaker makes with the audience.

Clincher– something memorable with which to conclude your speech.

Inspire– to affect or arouse someone’s emotions in a specific, positive manner.

CHAPTER 10 – Delivery

Impromptu Speaking– the presentation of a short message without advance preparation.

Manuscript Speaking– the word-for-word iteration of a written message.

Extemporaneous Speaking– the presentation of a carefully planned and rehearsed speech, spoken in a conversational manner using brief notes.

Memorized Speaking– the rote recitation of a written message that the speaker has committed to memory.

Vocal Cues– the subtle but meaningful variations in speech delivery, which can include the use of pitch, tone, volume, and pace.

Lectern– a small raised surface, usually with a slanted top, where a speaker can place notes during a speech.

Volume– the relative softness or loudness of your voice.

Pitch– the relative highness or lowness of your voice.

Monotone– a continuing sound, especially of someone’s voice, that is unchanging in pitch and without intonation.

Rate– the speed at which you speak; how quickly or slowly a speaker talks.

Vocalized Pauses– pauses that incorporate some sort of sound or word that is unrelated to what is being said; “uh,” “um,” and “like” are well-known examples.

CHAPTER 11 – Audience Analysis

Audience Analysis– examining and looking at your audience first by its demographic characteristics and then by their internal psychological traits.

Demographic Characteristics– the outward characteristics of the audience.

Stereotyping– generalizing about a group of people and assuming that because a few persons in that group have a characteristic, all of them do.

Totalizing– taking one characteristic of a group or person and making that the “totality” or sum total of what that person or group is.

Heterogeneous– a mixture of different types of people and demographic characteristics within a group of people.

Homogeneous– a group of people that are very similar in many characteristics.

Psychographic Characteristics– the inner characteristics of the audience; beliefs, attitudes, needs, and values.

Beliefs– statements we hold to be true.

Attitude– a stable positive or negative response to a person, idea, object, or policy.

Values– goals we strive for and what we consider important and desirable.

Needs– important deficiencies that we are motivated to fulfill.

CHAPTER 12 – Language

Language– any formal system of gestures, signs, sounds, and symbols used or conceived as a means of communicating thought, either through written, enacted, or spoken means.

Euphemism– devices often used to make something unpleasant sound more tolerable.

Abstract Language– language that evokes many different visual images in the minds of your audience.

Literal Language– language that does not use comparisons like similes and metaphors.

Figurative Language– language that uses metaphors and similes to compare things that may not be literally alike.

Simile– a figure of speech involving the comparison of one thing with another thing of a different kind (specifically using the terms “like” or “as”), used to make a description more emphatic or vivid.

Metaphor– a figure of speech that identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.

Clichés– predictable and generally overused expressions; usually similes.

Imagery– language that makes the recipient smell, taste, see, hear, and feel a sensation; also known as sensory language.

Jargon– language used in a specific field that may or may not be understood by others.

Slang– a type of language that consists of words and phrases that are specific to a subculture or group that others may not understand.

Assonance– the repetition of vowel sounds in a sentence or passage.

Alliteration– the repetition of initial consonant sounds in a sentence or passage.

Antithesis– the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas in balanced or parallel words, phrases, or grammatical structures.

Parallelism– the repetition of grammatical structures that correspond in sound, meter, or meaning.

Anaphora– the succession of sentences beginning with the same word or group of words.

Hyperbole– intentional exaggeration for effect.

Irony– the expression of one’s meaning by using language that normally signifies the opposite, typically for humorous or emphatic effect.

Appropriateness– how persons and groups should be referred to and addressed based on inclusiveness and context.

Ethnic Identity– a group an individual identifies with based on a common culture.

CHAPTER 13 – Persuasive Speaking

Persuasion– a symbolic process in which communicators try to convince other people to change their attitudes or behavior regarding an issue through the transmission of a message, in an atmosphere of free choice.

Proposition– the central idea statement in a persuasive speech; a statement made advancing a judgment or opinion.

Target Audience– the members of an audience the speaker most wants to persuade and who are likely to be receptive to persuasive messages.

Mental Dialogue– an imagined conversation the speaker has with a given audience in which the speaker tries to anticipate what questions, concerns, or issues the audience may have to the subject under discussion.

Selective Exposure– the decision to expose ourselves to messages that we already agree with, rather than those that confront or challenge us.

Cognitive Dissonance– a psychological phenomenon where people confronted with conflicting information or viewpoints reach a state of dissonance (generally the disagreement between conflicting thoughts and/or actions), which can be very uncomfortable, and results in actions to get rid of the dissonance and maintain consonance.

Two-tailed Arguments– a persuasive technique in which a speaker brings up a counter- argument to their own topic and then directly refutes the claim.

Ethos– the influence of speaker credentials and character in a speech; arguments based on credibility.

Logos– logical and organized arguments and the credible evidence to support the arguments within a speech; arguments based on logic.

Pathos– the use of emotions such as anger, joy, hate, desire for community, and love to persuade the audience of the rightness of a proposition; arguments based on emotion.

CHAPTER 14 – Logical Reasoning

Analogical Reasoning– drawing conclusions about an object or phenomenon based on its similarities to something else.

Figurative Analogy– an analogy where the two things under comparison are not essentially the same.

Literal Analogy– an analogy where the two things under comparison have sufficient or significant similarities to be compared fairly.

Logical Fallacies– mistakes in reasoning; erroneous conclusions or statements made from poor inductive or deductive analyses.

Inductive Reasoning– a type of reasoning in which examples or specific instances are used to supply strong evidence for (though not absolute proof of) the truth of the conclusion; the scientific method.

Generalization– a form of inductive reasoning that draws conclusions based on recurring patterns or repeated observations.

Causal Reasoning– a form of inductive reasoning that seeks to make cause-effect connections.

Sign Reasoning– a form of inductive reasoning in which conclusions are drawn about phenomena based on events that precede or co-exist with (but not cause) a subsequent event.

Analogical Reasoning– drawing conclusions about an object or phenomenon based on its similarities to something else.

Deductive Reasoning– a type of reasoning in which a conclusion is based on the combination of multiple premises that are generally assumed to be true.

Syllogism– a three-sentence argument composed of a major premise (a generalization or principle that is accepted as true), a minor premise (and example of the major premise), and a conclusion.

Enthymeme– a syllogism with one of the premises missing.

False Analogy– a fallacy where two things are compared that do not share enough (or key) similarities to be compared fairly.

False Cause– a general fallacy involving causal reasoning, where it is assumed that something that is neither strong or direct enough has caused something else, or something that happened first in time caused something later.

Slippery Slope– a fallacy that assumes that taking a first step will lead to subsequent events that cannot be prevented.

Hasty Generalization– a fallacy that involves making a generalization with too few examples.

Straw Man– a fallacy that shows only the weaker side of an opponent’s argument in order to more easily tear it down.

Post hoc ergo propter hoc (historical fallacy)– using progression in time as the reason for causation, but nothing else.

Argument from Silence– making a converse argument from lack of evidence or information about a conclusion.

Non Sequitur– a fallacy where the conclusion does not follow from its premise.

False Dilemma– a fallacy that forces listeners to choose between two alternatives when more than two alternatives exist.

Appeal to Tradition– arguing that traditional practice and long-term history is the only reason for continuing a policy.

Bandwagon– a fallacy that assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable.

Red Herring– creating a diversion or introducing an irrelevant point to distract someone or get someone off the subject of the argument.

Ad Hominem– a fallacy that attacks the person rather than dealing with the real issue in dispute.

Ad Misericordium– inappropriate appeal to pity or emotions to hide lack of facts or argument.

CHAPTER 15 -Special Occasion Speaking

Special Occasion Speech– a speech designed to capture an audience’s attention while delivering a message.

Speech of Introduction– a mini-speech given by the host of a ceremony that introduces another speaker and their speech.

Speech of Presentation– a brief speech given to accompany a prize or honor.

Speech of Acceptance– a speech given by the recipient of a prize or honor.

Speech of Dedication– a speech delivered to mark the unveiling, opening, or acknowledging of some landmark or structure.

Toast– a speech designed to congratulate, appreciate, or remember.

Roast– a humorous speech designed to both praise and good-naturedly insult a person being honored.

Eulogy– a speech given in honor of someone who has died.

Lament– to express grief or sorrow.

Console– to offer comfort in a time of grief.

Speech of Farewell– a speech allowing someone to say goodbye to one part of their life as they are moving on to the next part of life.

Speech of Commencement– a speech designed to recognize and celebrate the achievements of a graduating class or other group of people.

After-Dinner Speech– a humorous speech that makes a serious point.

Motivational Speech– a speech designed not only to make an audience experience emotional arousal (fear, sadness, joy, excitement) but also to motivate the audience to do something with that emotional arousal.

Hero Speech– a motivational speech given by someone who is considered a hero in society.

Survivor Speech– a speech given by someone who has survived a personal tragedy or who has faced and overcame serious adversity.

Religious Speech– a speech designed to incorporate religious ideals into a motivational package to inspire an audience into thinking about or changing aspects of their religious lives.

Success Speech– a speech given by someone who has succeeded in some aspect of life and is giving back by telling others how they too can be successful.

CHAPTER 16 -Presentation Aids

Presentation Aids– the resources beyond the speech itself that a speaker uses to enhance the message conveyed to the audience.

Olfactory– of or relating to the sense of smell.

Gustatory– of or relating to the sense of taste.

Chart– graphical representation of data (often numerical) or a sketch representing an ordered process.

Graph– a pictorial representation of the relationships of quantitative data using dots, lines, bars, pie slices, and the like.

Line Graph– a graph designed to show trends over time.

Bar Graph– a graph designed to show the differences between quantities.

Pie Graph– a graph designed to show proportional relationships within sets of data.

Pictograph– a graph using iconic symbols to dramatize differences in amounts.

Diagrams– drawings or sketches that outline and explain the parts of an object, process, or phenomenon that cannot be readily seen.

Tone– the attitude of a given artifact (humorous, serious, light-hearted, etc.).