11.8 – Presenting As a Group
In this chapter you’ll learn how to deliver a presentation as a team, whether it is in person or online. We will first look at delivery in general. look at voice and body language skills that keep your audience engaged and inspired.
HOW TO DELIVER YOUR PRESENTATION
Excellent presenters use many delivery skills. Don’t worry about being perfect at all of them; start by working on the three skills you identified in Chapter 3. When those skills feel improved, choose three more to work on.
Voice
Volume Speak loudly enough so that we can hear you. Good volume also makes you sound confident
Clarity Enunciate your words, and avoid mumbling, so the audience can easily understand what you’re saying
Tone Match your tone to the content. Typically, tone goes higher when we are unsure or are asking a question, and goes lower when we are stating a fact or being authoritative
Pace Speak slowly enough to be understood, and vary your pace to add interest
- Choppiness – Speak as fluidly as possible, avoid hesitations and unusual pacing
- Speed – Speak smoothly and confidently, but a little slower than in normal conversation. In multicultural situations (where we might not be familiar with each others’ accents) speak even slower, and watch your audience to make sure they understand you.
- Pauses – Listening can be tiring. Brief pauses let your audience absorb information. You can also use pauses to add emphasis or anticipation.
Vocal variety Vary your tone, pace and volume to add interest, emphasis and clarity. For example, speak a little faster to add excitement or anticipation, or speak a little louder to show emphasis. Some cultures and languages tend to be more monotone, so some students may have to work a little bit harder to ensure they vary their tone.
Body language
Professional posture Good posture supports your voice, and makes you look professional and confident (when we’re nervous we tend to hunch and cross our arms). Face the audience most of the time, and avoid turning your back on them to look at your slides.
Manage your movement Repetitive body movements, such as tapping your foot or swaying, can also distract the audience. If you’re presenting in person, slowly move around the physical space, such as moving towards the audience, or from one part of the room to another.
Use gestures Use gestures to add interest, emphasis, and help explain what you’re saying, such as indicating part of a slide or demonstrating an action.
Eyes & face
Make eye contact most of the time Eye contact shows confidence and helps everyone in the audience feel included. Look at all parts of the room. Secret tip for shy presenters: look at people’s foreheads – it has the same effect as eye contact. If you’re presenting online, this means looking at the camera. If you’re using notes should be point form – not full sentences – that you can quickly glance at, not read.
Manage your facial expressions You can show passion and emotion through facial expressions. But be careful, sometimes presenters show how nervous they are by having a look of worry on their face.
Passion
Your passion will engage the audience. Show your enthusiasm, energy and interest through appropriate use of tone, pace, volume, facial expressions, gestures, and body language.
Your level of energy can be infectious, and inspire the audience. Even if your topic is serious, like mental health or a tragedy, you can still convey conviction and interest in the subject matter. Conversely, without passion, you can make even the most fascinating content boring, and cause your audience to disengage.
Words
Filler words Fillers distract the audience and make you seem nervous, unprepared or professional. These include uhh, umm, like, you know, and any other words or noises that are not actual content. Real words like and and so can also be used as filler words.
Vocabulary Use words and phrases your audience understands; language that is appropriate for them. Will they understand abbreviations, acronyms, slang and jargon?
Transitions Use transitions to connect sentences to each other, indicate that you’re moving to the next major point, or in group presentations, that you’re moving to the next speaker.
Timing
Make sure the length of your presentation matches your audience’s expectations. If your presentation is a lot shorter, the audience (and instructor!) might be disappointed; if you go overtime they might resent you.
PRO TIP
After each presentation, make a note of 3 things that you did well, and 3 things you want to improve.
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE
Watch each of these videos and test your understanding of the presenter’s skills.
What did you notice?
What did you notice?
PRESENTING ONLINE
While many of the basics remain the same, presenting online is different than speaking in person. We will now look at tools and strategies for successful online meetings and presentations. You need to think about tools and lighting, as well as structure and delivery.
Apps
You can choose from different apps, including: Zoom, FaceTime, Skype, Webex and MS Teams. When deciding which one to use, consider the following:
- Security Some workplaces or institutions have restrictions on what apps you can use, due to security and privacy concerns
- Familiarity Try to choose the app that’s most familiar to you and your attendees
- Ease of use Choose an app that’s easy to use
- Fees & limits Some services have fees or limitations. For example, in MS Teams you can only see a maximum of four people at time, and free Zoom accounts limit your meeting time and number of participants
- Features Make sure the app has the features you want, such as polls, surveys, reactions, whiteboard, chat, an option to phone in, and conference vs. webcast (2-way vs. 1-way communication)
PRO TIP
Download the online meeting app you’ll be using onto a second device, for example your phone, in case your main device crashes.
Equipment
Audio
- Use headphones, earbuds or a mic This helps isolate your voice from background noise, and prevents feedback
- Minimize background noise Close windows and doors, turn off anything making noise, put pets away, and ask anyone nearby to keep their sound to a minimum
- Mute yourself when not speaking This is especially important if you’re an audience member, or are part of a presentation but aren’t actively speaking
Camera & lighting
Your camera and lighting should create a polished, professional visual. Here’s how to do that:
- Centre your camera & raise it to eye level Put your camera or device on a book or cardboard box if you need to
- Put your camera near your screen This helps you seem to be looking at the audience
- Clean up! Or use a virtual background What’s behind you counts. Make your background tidy and professional (we’d rather not see your dirty laundry or roommates wandering around in their underwear). Some apps let you use a virtual background.
- Avoid backlighting Have more light in front of your face than behind it. Otherwise the audience can’t see your face. (You might look like a secret agent who’s hiding their identity!)
Devices
- Laptop & Desktop applications are best These typically have more features and stability than tablet and mobile versions
- Keep devices & apps up to date To ensure security, reliability, and availability of all features
- Close non-essential apps This helps your device run more efficiently and reduces the possibility of lagging or crashing
- Be empowered Plug your device in or make sure the battery is fully charged
Internet connection & WIFI
- Do a speed test ahead of time Many platforms, like Zoom, recommend minimum bandwidth speeds for various meeting types, typically starting at 2.0 Mbps for a single screen
- Reduce bandwidth hogging If someone else in your home is streaming video or online gaming, your connection speed will slow down
- Ensure wifi strength If you’re far away from your router, the wifi connection may be poor. Move closer to the router or use a hardwired connection
BEST PRACTICES for Online Presentations & Meetings
Professionalism
Oops! By now many of us have laughed or cringed at the “Zoom fails” videos we see online. They’re entertaining, but many people have been fired, embarrassed, or damaged their professional reputation because of unprofessionalism in online meetings. Make sure you remain professional!
- Don’t let your tech embarrass you Clear your desktop and any unnecessary open windows or browser tabs. Turn off notifications (do not disturb mode). Always assume that your mic and camera are live
- Set your environment Alert housemates, put pets away and tidy your physical background. Never attend meetings from bed
- Dress appropriately You probably don’t need to dress formally, but it’s important to wear appropriate attire
- Pay attention to the meeting Act as professionally in an online meeting as you would in person. This means no sleeping, browsing, facebooking, cooking, vaping, driving, or anything else that competes for your attention. Keeping your camera on is a great way to show that you’re paying attention
- Connect 3 minutes early Punctuality is very important
PRO TIP
Many online meeting platforms allow you to set your name and a professional picture in your meeting profile. Use a small professional headshot, and change your name to what you want people in the meeting to call you.
Attending a meeting
Even if you’re not running the meeting, you still need to be professional.
- RSVP Reply to all invitations – let them know if you plan to attend
- Prepare your tech tools Update or download any required apps. Do a practice call with a colleague or friend if you’re unsure of the app or your equipment
- Use the mute button Always keep yourself muted when you’re not speaking. Know how to unmute yourself quickly (some programs like Zoom allow you to hold down the spacebar to temporarily unmute yourself)
Hosting a meeting
Great news! Your boss asked you to host a meeting with some important clients. But how? Here are some tips.
Before
- Choose the app See the app section above
- Decide the agenda & structure Is this a formal meeting or more of an informal discussion? How long will it be? What items need to be discussed? Who will be speaking or presenting? How long will each speaker have? Will you share the agenda ahead of time?
- Send invites with clear instructions Make sure you invite all speakers and participants well in advance of your meeting. Invite the audience as soon as possible too. Send reminders a week before, and the day before. Include the meeting link, instructions on how to connect, and offer help to anyone who needs it.
- Plan and practice If possible, get a colleague to act as co-host. Decide who will admit people, start the recording, take notes, watch the time, watch the chat, show visuals, share polls, create breakout rooms, manage tech problems, etc. Whether or not you have a co-host, do a practice a day or two before the event.
During
- Start the meeting As the host, you’ll start the meeting at least 5 minutes early. Wait 2-5 minutes after the official start time to allow for late arrivals
- Welcome Warmly welcome everyone, introducing yourself and any guests that attendees may not know. In smaller meetings, you may introduce all of the attendees.
- Provide agenda & norms Remind everyone to stay muted unless speaking. Do you want to invite people to comment and ask questions during your presentation, or should they wait until the end? Do you want questions asked verbally or in the chat?
- Keep it as brief as possible Online meetings are tiring so be efficient and respectful of everyone’s time and energy
- Take notes You or your colleague can take notes during the meeting, or you can write a brief recap immediately after
After
- Thank and summarize Send the guests and attendees a thank you and brief summary of the meeting. Include next steps, action items or information on the next meeting
PRO TIP
Tech problems happen. No matter how prepared we are, sometimes things just don’t work.
Don’t panic! If the problem is minor, just keep going. If it’s major, stop and address the issue. Thank everyone for their patience.
Test your knowledge
HOW TO PRESENT AS A TEAM
Believe it or not team projects can be fun and rewarding. We will now look at how to make team projects efficient and successful. Teamwork is a huge part of most jobs, so being able to work well with others and manage team projects is an essential skill that will enhance your career. In school, team projects help you learn key teamwork and project management skills that you can take into the workforce.
Teamwork Skills
Being a productive part of an effective team requires these skills:
- Understand group dynamics
- Flexibility: accept and adapt to others and their contributions
- Respect: support your teammates’ diversity, perspectives and contributions
- Give kind, useful feedback and accept feedback graciously
- Contribute proactively and positively
- Be a leader but allow others to lead when appropriate
- Plan for and manage conflict
Project Planning
Planning can make your team project successful and enjoyable. Create an effective team with pre-project planning:
- Read the project assignment and rubric or grading plan
- Create or join a team based on similar grade goals, ways of working, amount of time you’re willing to invest, and team organization / leadership style. Avoid joining a team just because your friends are on it.
- Organize your first meeting. Everyone must attend.
- Create a team charter or have a process conversation (details below).
- Record your plans: team organization / leadership; working style; roles & tasks; deadlines, etc
- Schedule the project, working backwards from the due date. Allow time for personnel or tech problems.
Process Conversations
Process conversations make teamwork more productive and less frustrating. They’re simple conversations where you discuss and agree how your team will function.
Process conversations are strengthened when the outcomes are documented and saved to the for later reference. Create one central place that all teammates can access and store all your files and decisions there.
Strong process conversations answer questions such as:
At the end of your team process conversation, make sure to ask if there’s anything else: What else do we need to discuss?
The 5-Finger Vote
Sometimes a simple yes or no isn’t enough. The 5 finger vote gives useful nuance to discussions and decisions.
Instead of asking yes/no or for/against questions, ask team members to vote with their fingers. The scale is:
| Number of fingers | Meaning: |
| 5 | 100% support the idea or action |
| 4 | Strongly agree |
| 3 | Slightly in favour |
| 2 | Mildly disagree |
| 1 | Strongly disagree |
| 0 | 100% disagree |
For example, your team is trying to choose a topic – will it be topic A, B or C? So you take a 5 finger vote. Most members are: 3 fingers for topic A, 5 fingers for topic B, and 2 fingers for topic C. Topic B is the clear winner.
Or you can add up all the fingers and use the total to decide. For example, That’s 12 fingers for topic A, 19 fingers for topic B, and 7 fingers for topic C. Topic B’s the winner.
Team Conflict
Conflict is almost inevitable in teams of busy, stressed students. Do your best to avoid conflict by:
- Supporting each other (Remind yourself that you’ll all do better if you cooperate)
- Communicating clearly and frequently, ensuring that everyone is clear on expectations
- Using a team charter or process conversation
- Being open-minded and respectful
- Addressing concerns or frustrations early
Teams that prepare for conflict can deal with it quickly and effectively when it happens.
DURING the Presentation
Introduce each other & remember transitions
Introduce each other at the start of your presentation. You can take turns introducing a teammate, or designate one person to act as the host, and introduce everyone. (Make sure you know each other’s names and how to pronounce them!)
If you have a host, they can handle the introductions, thesis, overview, transitions and conclusion. This adds consistency to your presentation and helps the audience understand what’s happening. If you’re not using a host, ensure that you practice strong transitions from one teammate to another. For example: “Now that I’ve explained the reasons you should have a LinkedIn profile, Sharika will explain how to make your LinkedIn profile.”
Keep time
It’s also a good idea to designate one teammate as timekeeper. They can make sure you don’t go overtime, and help make sure all teammates have an equal chance to contribute.
Present as a unified team
A team presentation is very different from an individual presentation. One of the biggest problems we see is team presentations that don’t feel unified. You’ve got a team, present like a team!
For this reason, it is important to ensure that everyone is aware of what their teammates will be presenting, and know when transitions are meant to occur.
It is also important to show that you’re paying attention to teammates when they are presenting, and avoid fidgeting, talking, looking bored, or turning off your camera (just because you’re not talking doesn’t mean that you disappear). You can suggest to the audience that your group is doing a good job by nodding when a teammate delivers a strong point.
In some less formal presentations, you may decide to interact with each other: have a conversation, interview each other, argue two sides of an issue, or have some teammates demonstrate what’s being described.
Maybe some teammates can demonstrate or hold visual aids.
In online presentations, teammates can be working behind the scenes while others are presenting. One person might be handling the tech, another might be watching the chat, and another might be controlling presentation slides.
Plan the Q&A
If you’re including a Q&A at the end of your presentation, decide how your team will handle it. You might designate which teammate will answer different types of questions, or your team might take turns answering.
At the end of each answer, ask the other teammates if they have anything to add.
Test your knowledge
Media Attributions
- pexels-anna-shvets-4226122e
There must be some kind of motivating force present within groups in order for the rules and norms to help govern and guide a group. Without such pressure, group members would have no incentive to conform to group norms or buy into the group’s identity and values. In this section, we will discuss how rules and norms gain their power through internal and external pressures and how these pressures can have positive and negative effects.
Conformity
In general, some people are more likely to accept norms and rules than others, which can influence the interaction and potential for conflict within a group. While some people may feel a need for social acceptance that leads them to accept a norm or rule with minimal conformity pressure, others may actively resist because they have a valid disagreement or because they have an aggressive or argumentative personality (Ellis & Fisher, 1994, 133). Such personality traits are examples of internal pressures that operate within the individual group member and act as a self-governing mechanism. When group members discipline themselves and monitor their own behavior, groups need not invest in as many external mechanisms to promote conformity. Deviating from the group’s rules and norms that a member internalized during socialization can lead to self-imposed feelings of guilt or shame that can then initiate corrective behaviors and discourage the member from going against the group.
External pressures in the form of group policies, rewards or punishments, or other forces outside of individual group members also exert conformity pressure. In terms of group policies, groups that have an official admission process may have a probation period during which new members’ membership is contingent on them conforming to group expectations. Deviation from expectations during this “trial period” could lead to expulsion from the group. Supervisors, mentors, and other types of group leaders are also agents that can impose external pressures toward conformity. These group members often have the ability to provide positive or negative reinforcement in the form of praise or punishment, which are clear attempts to influence behavior.
Conformity pressure can also stem from external forces when the whole group stands to receive a reward or punishment based on its performance, which ties back to the small group characteristic of interdependence. Although these pressures may seem negative, they also have positive results. Groups that exert an appropriate and ethical amount of conformity pressure typically have higher levels of group cohesion, which as we learned leads to increased satisfaction with group membership, better relationships, and better task performance. Groups with a strong but healthy level of conformity also project a strong group image to those outside the group, which can raise the group’s profile or reputation (Routledge, 2011, 444). Pressures toward conformity, of course, can go too far, as is evidenced in tragic stories of people driven to suicide because they felt they couldn’t live up to the conformity pressure of their group and people injured or killed enduring hazing rituals that take expectations for group conformity to unethical and criminal extremes.
GETTING PLUGGED IN: Hazing: Taking Conformity Pressures to the Extreme
Hazing can be defined as actions expected to be performed by aspiring or new members of a group that are irrelevant to the group’s activities or mission and are humiliating, degrading, abusive, or dangerous (Richardson et al., 2012, 173). People who have participated in hazing or have been hazed often note that hazing activities are meant to build group identification and unity. Scholars note that hazing is rationalized because of high conformity pressures and that people who were hazed internalize the group’s practices and are more likely to perpetuate hazing, creating a cycle of abuse (Campo et al., 2005, 138). Hazing is not new; it has been around in academic and athletic settings since ancient Greece, but it has gotten much attention lately on college campuses as the number of student deaths attributed to hazing behaviors has increased steadily over the past years. In general, it is believed that hazing incidents are underreported because these activities are done in secret within tightly-knit organizations such as fraternities, sororities, and athletic teams that have strong norms of conformity (Richardson et al., 2012, 185-220).
The urge to belong is powerful, but where is the line when it comes to the actions people take or what people are willing to endure in order to be accepted? Hazing is meant to have aspiring group members prove their worth or commitment to the group. Examples of hazing include but aren’t limited to, being “kidnapped, transported, and abandoned”; drinking excessively in games or contests; sleep deprivation; engaging in or simulating sexual acts; being physically abused; being required to remain silent; wearing unusual clothes or costumes; or acting in a subservient manner to more senior group members (Campo et al., 2005, 137); (Cimino, 2011, 235). Research has found that people in leadership roles, who are more likely to have strong group identification, are also more likely to engage in hazing activities (Campo et al., 2005, 144). The same research also found that group members who have supportive friends outside of the organization are more likely to remove themselves from a hazing situation, which points to the fact that people who endure hazing may be doing so out of a strong drive to find the acceptance and belonging they do not have elsewhere.
- What is your definition of hazing? When does something cross the line from a rite of passage or tradition to hazing?
- What are some internal and external pressures that might lead to hazing activities?
- Do some research on hazing incidents on college campuses. What concepts from this chapter do you think could be used in anti-hazing education campaigns to prevent incidents like the ones you researched?
Groupthink
Groupthink is a negative group phenomenon characterized by a lack of critical evaluation of proposed ideas or courses of action that results from high levels of cohesion and/or high conformity pressures (Janis, 1972). We can better understand groupthink by examining its causes and effects. When group members fall victim to groupthink, the effect is an uncritical acceptance of decisions or suggestions for plans of action to accomplish a task or goal. Group meetings that appear to go smoothly with only positive interaction among happy, friendly people may seem ideal, but these actions may be symptomatic of groupthink (Ellis & Fisher, 1994, 134). When people rush to agreement or fear arguments, groupthink has a tendency to emerge. Decisions made as a result of groupthink may range from a poorly thought-out presentation method that bores the audience to a mechanical failure resulting in death.
Two primary causes of groupthink are high levels of cohesion and excessive conformity pressures. When groups exhibit high levels of social cohesion, members may be reluctant to criticize or question another group member’s ideas or suggestions for fear that it would damage the relationship. When group members have a high level of task cohesion, they may feel invincible and not critically evaluate ideas. High levels of cohesion may actually lessen conformity pressures since group members who identify strongly with the group’s members and mission may not feel a need to question the decisions or suggestions made by others. For those who aren’t blinded by the high levels of cohesion, internal conformity pressures may still lead them to withhold criticism of an idea because the norm is to defer to decisions made by organization leaders or a majority of group members. External conformity pressures because of impending reward or punishment, time pressures, or an aggressive leader are also factors that can lead to groupthink.
To Avoid Groupthink, Groups Should:
- Divvy up responsibilities between group members so decision-making power isn’t in the hands of a few
- Track contributions of group members in such a way that each person’s input and output is recorded so that it can be discussed
- Encourage and reward the expression of minority or dissenting opinions
- Allow members to submit ideas prior to a discussion so that opinions aren’t swayed by members who propose ideas early in a discussion
- Question each major decision regarding its weaknesses and potential negative consequences relative to competing decisions (encourage members to play “devil’s advocate”)
- Have decisions reviewed by an outside party that wasn’t involved in the decision-making process
- Have a “reflection period” after a decision is made and before it is implemented during which group members can express reservations or second thoughts about the decision
EXERCISES - Group Pressures
- Group cohesion and climate are important dynamics within a small group. Identify and then compare and contrast a current or former small group that was cohesive and one that was not cohesive, including a discussion of how the presence or lack of cohesion affected the group’s climate.
- Groupthink is a negative group dynamic that relates to cohesion and conformity pressures. Several historic events with far-reaching and devastating implications have been analyzed through the lens of groupthink. Choose one of the following examples, and do some Internet research on your own. Then explain how groupthink played a role in the event.
- The Watergate scandal and cover-up (1972–1974)
- The space shuttle Challenger explosion (1986)
- The rationale for the invasion of Iraq—specifically the supposed existence of weapons of mass destruction (2001–2002)
KEY TAKEAWAYS
- Task cohesion refers to the degree of commitment of group members to the purpose and activities of the group, and social cohesion refers to the degree of attraction and liking among group members. Group climate refers to the relatively enduring tone and quality of group interaction that is experienced similarly by group members. The degree of each type of cohesion affects the group’s climate. Groups can be very close socially but not perform well if they do not have an appropriate level of task cohesion. Groups that are too focused on the task can experience interpersonal conflict or a lack of motivation if social cohesion, which helps enhance the feeling of interdependence, is lacking.
- Group socialization refers to the process of teaching and learning the norms, rules, and expectations associated with group interaction and group member behaviors. Group members are socialized by receiving technical and social information. Cohesion plays a role in socialization, as groups that have high levels of task and social cohesion are more likely to buy into the norms of the group. Socialization continues after a member has joined, as members are officially or unofficially rewarded or punished for adhering to or deviating from the group’s norms.
- Conformity pressures are an important force behind group socialization. Internal pressures such as an internal drive to be seen as part of the group or to avoid feeling ashamed or guilty for deviating from the group influence behavior and communication. Likewise, external pressures such as group policies and the potential for reward or punishment also play into group dynamics. The pressures toward conformity can manifest in groupthink, which is characterized by a lack of critical evaluation of proposed ideas, a high level of agreement, and a fear of argument.
rules and expectations that direct the behavior of the group as a whole
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
A new vice president heads an organization. At the end of her first weekly meeting with her staff members, she tossed a Nerf ball to one of them and asked the person to say how she was feeling. When that person finished, the vice president asked her to toss the ball to someone else, and so on, until everyone had expressed himself or herself. This process soon became a regular feature of the group’s meetings.
In our earlier section on group life cycles, you learned about Bruce Tuckman’s model of forming, storming, norming, and performing. Along with roles, status, and trust, which we’ll encounter in the next chapter, norms are usually generated and adopted after a group’s “forming” and “storming” stages.
As a group moves from “forming” toward “performing,” then, norms help guide its members along the way. Whether we see them or not, norms are powerful predictors of a group’s behavior (LibreTexts, 2020).
Every group in which we participate has a set of norms, or ground rules for how group members should act or behave. Each group’s rules and norms are different, and we must learn them to be effective participants. Some groups formalize their norms and rules, while others are less formal and more fluid. Norms are the recognized rules of behavior for group members. Norms influence the ways we communicate with other members, and ultimately, the outcome of group participation. Norms are important because they are the defining characteristics of groups. In this section, we will highlight several of the essential aspects of norms and how they relate to people in groups or teams. We will also consider the characteristics and functions of group norms, the process of learning group norms, as well as conformity with and deviance from them.
DEFINING NORMS IN GROUPS
Because people in groups come together for a specific purpose, they develop shared norms to help them achieve their goals. Even with a goal in place, random interaction does not define a group. Group interaction is generally guided by norms a group has established for acceptable behavior (O’Hair & Wieman, p. 19). Norms are essentially expectations of the group members, established by the group, and can be conscious and formal, or unconscious and informal. A couple of examples of group norms include the expectation that all members show up at group meeting times, the expectation that all group members focus on the group instead of personal matters (for example, turning cell phones and other distractions off), and the expectation that group members finish their part of the work by the established due date. When members of the group violate group norms, other members of the group get frustrated and the group’s overall goal may be affected.
Norms may also relate to how people look, behave, or communicate with each other. Tossing a Nerf ball around a circle of workers is perhaps a peculiar way to start a meeting, and it probably doesn’t contribute directly to achieving substantive goals, but it did represent a norm in the vice president’s group we described—which, by the way, was a real group and not a product of imagination!
Some norms relate to how a group as a whole will act—e.g., when and how often it will meet, for instance. Others have to do with the behavior of individual group members and the roles those members play within the group.
Brilhart and Galanes (1998) divide norms into two categories. General norms “direct the behavior of the group as a whole” (130). Meeting times, how meetings run, and the division of tasks are all examples of general norms that groups form and maintain. These norms establish the generally accepted rules of behavior for all group members. The second category of norms is role-specific norms. Role-specific norms “concern individual members with particular roles, such as the designated leader” (130). Not only are there norms that apply to all members of a group, but there are also norms that influence the behaviors of each role. When norms are violated, group members most often will work to correct the violation to get the group back on task and functioning properly.
Ultimately, by defining what social behavior lies within acceptable boundaries, norms can help a group function smoothly and face conflict without falling apart (Hayes, p. 31). Thus, they can constitute a potent force to promote positive interaction among group members.
VIDEO - Norms in Action Group
In a new group, norms may arise organically as members settle into their relationships and start to function together. Decisions need to be made and time needs to be taken for diverse activities such as identifying goals, determining tasks, and allocating human and tangible resources. Who will take the lead in these areas of the group’s behavior has to be determined.
Further questions need to be answered as the group gets off the ground. Here are some examples:
- What topics are and are not appropriate for the group to discuss?
- How and to what degree will members respect and attend to each other’s statements and viewpoints?
- How and when, if ever, will the group behave casually?
- What mechanisms will the group use to solve problems?
Any group eventually needs to deal with these questions, and the answers it reaches will become embodied as norms.
Characteristics of Group Norms
A work group norm may be defined as a standard that is shared by group members and regulates member behavior within a group or organization. An example can be seen in a typical classroom situation when students develop a norm against speaking up in class too often. It is believed that students who are highly visible improve their grades at the expense of others. Hence, a norm is created that attempts to govern acceptable classroom behavior. We see similar examples in the workplace. There may be a norm against producing too much or too little, against getting too close to the supervisor, against being late for work, and so forth. According to Hackman (1996), workgroup norms may be characterized by at least five factors:
- Norms summarize and simplify group influence processes. They denote the processes by which groups regulate and regularize member behavior.
- Norms apply only to behavior, not to private thoughts and feelings. Although norms may be based on thoughts and feelings, they cannot govern them. That is, private acceptance of group norms is unnecessary—only public compliance is needed.
- Norms are generally developed only for behaviors that are viewed as important by most group members.
- Norms usually develop gradually, but the process can be quickened if members wish. Norms usually are developed by group members as the need arises, such as when a situation occurs that requires new ground rules for members to protect group integrity.
- All norms do not apply to all members. Some norms, for example, apply only to young initiates (such as getting the coffee), whereas others are based on seniority, sex, race, or economic class.
Function of Group Norms
Most all groups have norms, although some may be more extensive than others. To see this, examine the norms that exist in the various groups to which you belong. Which groups have more fully developed norms? Why? What functions do these norms serve? Several efforts have been made to answer this question. In general, workgroup norms serve four functions in organizational settings (Feldman, 1984):
- Norms facilitate group survival. When a group is under threat, norms provide a basis for ensuring goal-directed behavior and rejecting deviant behavior that is not purposeful to the group. This is essentially a “circle the wagons” phenomenon.
- Norms simplify expected behaviors. Norms tell group members what is expected of them—what is acceptable and unacceptable—and allow members to anticipate the behaviors of their fellow group members and to anticipate the positive or negative consequences of their own behavior.
- Norms help avoid embarrassing situations. By identifying acceptable and unacceptable behaviors, norms tell group members when a behavior or topic is damaging to another member. For example, a norm against swearing signals group members that such action would be hurtful to someone in the group and should be avoided.
- Norms help identify the group and express its central values to others. Norms concerning clothes, language, mannerisms, and so forth help tell others who belongs to the group and, in some cases, what the group stands for. Norms often serve as rallying points for group members.
TYPES OF NORMS
There are two main classifications of group norms. Implicit norms are the rules and expectations that are implied within a group. Explicit norms, on the other hand, are the rules and expectations that are outright stated.
Implicit Norms
Whether a group is new or not, its norms aren’t always expressed or discussed. People may simply assume that certain norms exist and accept them “by unspoken consent” (Galanes & Adams, p. 162) in which case they are implicit norms.
Consider “same seat syndrome,” for example. How often have you found that people in a college classroom seem to gravitate every day to exactly the same chairs they’ve always sat in? Nobody says, “Hey, I’ve decided that this will be my chair forever” or “I see that that’s your territory, so I’ll never sit there,” do they?
Often norms are difficult for group members to express in words. What topics are okay or not okay to talk about during informal “chit-chat” may be a matter of unstated intuition rather than something that people can readily describe. Nevertheless, implicit norms may be extremely powerful, and even large groups are apt to have at least some implicit norms.
The cultural background each member brings to a group may lie beneath conscious awareness, yet it may exert a powerful influence on both that person’s and the group’s behavior and expectations. Just as a fish is unaware that it lives in water, a person may easily go through life and participate in group interactions without perceiving that he or she is the product of a culture.
Explicit Norms
Sometimes group norms are stated outright, either verbally or in writing; then they are explicit norms. Such explicit rules may be imposed by an authority figure such as an executive or designated team leader. They may be part of formal policies or regulations. Wearing a uniform or answering the telephone in a certain way, for instance, may be written requirements in a workplace group.
Manuals, and even books, have been composed to provide members of groups with norms of how to behave. A manager in one organization we know wrote a policy in response to almost every problem or difficulty his division experienced. Because the manager served for more than 15 years in his position, the collection of these incident-based policies eventually filled a large tabbed binder. The bigger the group, the more likely it is that its norms will be rigid and explicit like these (Lamberton, L., & Minor-Evans, L., 2002).
Table 4.2 Implicit, Explicit, Individual, and Whole-Group Norms.
| INDIVIDUAL | WHOLE-GROUP | |
| EXPLICIT | Each new member receives a copy of the group's bylaws. | The group keeps minutes of all its meetings. |
| IMPLICIT | A person should raise his/her hand to signal a desire to speak. | Someone brings donuts or other treats every time the group meets. |
Interaction, Procedure, Status, and Achievement Norms
- Interaction norms specify how people communicate in the group. Is it expected that everyone in the group should have an opportunity to speak about any topic that the group deals with? How long is it okay for one person to speak?
- Procedure-oriented norms identify how the group functions. Does it hold meetings according to an established schedule? Who speaks first when the group gets together? Does someone distribute a written record of what happened after every time the group gets together?
- Status norms indicate the degree of influence that members possess and how that influence is obtained and expressed. Who decides when a group discussion has concluded? When and how are officers for the group elected?
- Achievement norms relate to standards the group sets for the nature and amount of its work. Must members cite readings or the comments of authorities when they make presentations to the group? What happens to a group member who completes tasks late or fails to complete them at all?
NORMS AMONG GROUP MEMBERS2
Knotty Norms
Responding to Norms
Enforcing Norms
Challenging and Changing Group Norms
EXERCISES - Group Norms
- Identify two norms, one explicit and one implicit, that you’ve encountered in a group setting. Did you observe the norms being enforced in some way? If so, what kind of enforcement was employed, and by whom?
- Describe a time when you were part of a group and believed that one of its norms needed to be changed. What made you feel that way? Was your view shared by anyone else in the group?
- What steps have you taken to challenge a group norm? How did the other members of the group respond to your challenge? If you had a chance to go back and relive the situation, what if anything would you change about your actions? (If you don’t recall ever having challenged a group norm, describe a situation in which someone else did so).
- Have you ever been in a group in which a particular group member did not do the task that was assigned to them? What happened? How did the group handle this situation as a whole? What was the response of the person who did not complete the task? In hindsight, would you have handled it differently? If so, how?
KEY TAKEAWAYS
