When we zoom out from a text itself, we can look a text in its context, which consists of four main elements: purpose, audience, genre, and medium. Together, these elements are often referred to as the rhetorical situation.

In this chapter, we will explore each of these concepts in depth, focusing on how a better understanding of them can help us develop a better understanding of a text. By the end, you’ll see how these elements work together to create impactful communication. Although we’ll be focused on analyzing these aspects in texts that others have written, you will also start to see how you can be more conscious and intentional about these elements when writing your own texts.

I. Purpose

Rhetorical purpose refers to the specific goal or objective that a communicator aims to achieve through their message. It is the driving force behind any piece of communication, shaping its content, structure, and delivery.

Purpose and Exigence

To fully understand purpose, we must first explore a closely related concept: exigence. The exigence is the specific problem or circumstance that has motivated the author to create the text in the first place. In other words, it’s the “why” behind the communication.

The rhetorical exigence can be quite urgent and immediate. For example, imagine a storm system with a high chance of generating tornados is approaching, creating a need for meteorologists and public officials to alert people in the path of the storm. The approaching storm system is the exigence, and their purpose is to change their audience’s behaviors in particular ways: stay inside, remain alert for sirens, and be prepared to take shelter. Other examples of urgent exigence might be breaking news events, immediate health threats, or security breaches – any situation where action is needed immediately.

The rhetorical exigence can be time-sensitive, but not urgent. An election campaign is a good example of a time-sensitive exigence; the end point is the election, which may be weeks or months ahead. Other examples might be product launches or seasonal events. In all of these examples, the problem or circumstance has a defined end point or expiration date when the issue becomes settled or is no longer relevant, but immediate action is not necessary.

The rhetorical exigence can also be more general and relate to ongoing issues or concerns, such as social and political issues, environmental concerns, and public health initiatives. An anti-smoking campaign, for example, has no clear end point. This kind of exigence only ends when the problem is completely solved, which may never happen.

A good understanding of the exigence can also help authors make effective choices about kairos, which refers to the timing of their argument. (Yes, it’s another Greek term like logos, ethos, and pathos, but the concept actually predates Aristotle and the rhetorical triangle!) Kairos is all about seizing the most opportune moment to take action. With urgent exigence, the author may have little choice in the matter, but less urgent exigences can allow for rhetors to make more conscious decisions about when to deploy their messages.

Another part of kairos is tailoring the message to emphasize its current relevance for audiences. One of my favorite examples of kairos actually came from a student, who noted how Reese’s changes their ads throughout the year. In October, their ads feature the pumpkin-shaped peanut butter cups, in December it’s Christmas trees, in February it’s hearts, and in April it’s eggs. Instead of just using exactly the same promotion year-round, they change the product itself and their advertising to stay relevant to the season.

In each of these examples, the exigence creates the need for communication or action, while kairos represents the optimal moment to address that need for maximum impact, as well as strategies that emphasize how the argument is currently relevant. Not all situations allow for rhetors to choose the timing of their argument, but at the very least, they can use kairos to establish their argument’s relevance and significance.

How Exigence Shapes Content and Delivery

• Urgent exigence necessitates brief and direct messages, often through multiple channels, while less urgent exigence allows for more detailed and nuanced communication.
• Urgent exigence tends to adopt a more serious tone, while less urgent exigence can be more varied.
• Urgent and time-sensitive exigence requires clear calls for the audience to take specific actions within a given timeframe, while ongoing exigence might focus more on general behavioral change or aim to shape beliefs more than behaviors.
• Urgent exigence limits options for dialogue on issues, while ongoing exigence allows for audience response/participation.
• If author and audience disagree on the urgency of the exigence, the author may try to modify the audience’s feelings/beliefs about how urgent the situation is.

Purpose as Rhetorical Aim

While exigence helps us understand the motivation behind a text, we can also think about purpose in terms of broader rhetorical aims. These aims can be classified into just a few typical categories:

• To inform or educate: the author’s main goal is for the audience to learn something new
• To persuade or motivate: the author’s main goal is for the audience to adopt a new position or pursue a particular of action
• To entertain: the author’s main goal is to engage and amuse the audience

Any given text is likely to have just one of these as the primary or most obvious aim; however, these aims can and often do overlap.

Informative texts, for example, aim to change the audience’s beliefs about the topic, so they need some elements of persuasion. Furthermore, what counts as “informative” can, to some extent, be in the eye of the beholder. An author may be simply trying to inform the audience about an issue, but on controversial topics (think climate change or vaccines), some audiences would interpret that same text as intending to persuade rather than simply inform. Informative texts are also more effective if they are interesting and fun for the audience to read, so they may incorporate elements of entertainment.

Similarly, persuasive texts benefit from being entertaining; they must get and keep the audience’s attention. They also frequently rely on facts and data that might be new to the audience, so they can be informative.

Finally, texts with the primary purpose of entertainment still often convey information (everything I know about the Napoleonic Wars, I learned from Naomi Novik’s novels!), and they both intentionally and unintentionally convey lessons. For example, In shaping how we view and move within the world, the texts we consume for entertainment do, in some sense, persuade us.

Because persuasion is implied in every kind of text, comp/rhet scholars often say, “Everything is an argument.” Any time we communicate, we are trying to have some kind of effect, so in the most general sense, every text is persuasive.

How Rhetorical Aim Shapes Content and Delivery

Despite how tangled up the different rhetorical aims can be, the author typically has one aim that dominates the others, and that aim will shape the text’s content and delivery, often as described in the table below:

By examining these elements, we can infer the main aim of a text even when it’s not explicitly stated. We can also evaluate how well the various components of the text support its intended rhetorical aim(s). Finally, when creating our own messages, we can deliberately choose elements that best serve our primary rhetorical aim.

By understanding both the specific exigence and the broader rhetorical aim, we can gain a more comprehensive view of a text’s purpose and how texts can be shaped to better accomplish their purposes. This understanding is crucial for both analyzing existing texts and planning our own writing.

II. Audience

Now that we’ve explored purpose, let’s turn our attention to another crucial element of rhetoric: the audience. In rhetoric, the audience refers to the intended recipients of a message. Understanding and adapting to the audience is crucial for effective communication. We can think about both the primary audience, who would be the originally intended recipients, and any secondary audiences, who would be others who might encounter the message in other contexts. Currently, secondary audiences can be quite large and varied, as content is so easily shared online. Often, as a student, you are a secondary audience for the texts you’re asked to analyze. As a secondary audience, analyzing texts effectively requires you to identify and understand the primary audience; after all, the author may have made certain assumptions that don’t apply to you, but that would have made sense for the primary audience.

Composition scholars Lisa Ede and Andrea Lunsford describe two different ways of thinking about the primary audience. One is the “audience addressed”; that is, the real people who would have encountered the text in its original publication. To identify this audience, you might need to engage in a little background research. Where and when was the piece originally published? Based on that information, what kind of people would have encountered it?

Ede and Lunsford’s second kind of audience is the “audience invoked.” This audience is who seemed to be in the author’s head while they were writing. You learn about this audience by looking at the text itself and asking questions like:

• What assumptions does the text make about the audience’s background knowledge, beliefs, or values?
• What role does the author seem to imagine the audience taking?
• What kind of relationship does the author seem to imagine having with the audience?
• What responses does the author imagine coming from the audience?

Audience Analysis

Key factors to consider in audience analysis include:

• Demographics (age, gender, education, culture)
  • Example: A financial advice article targeted at young adults will address different concerns than one for those nearing retirement
• Psychographics (attitudes, values, beliefs)
  • Example: An advertisement might focus on a product’s environmental friendliness for an eco-conscious audience, while emphasizing the product’s price, convenience, or utility for other audiences
• Prior knowledge and experience on the topic
  • Example: The language used for an audience of experts can be quite technical, but would need to simplified for beginner audiences
• Relationship to the author
  • Example: A CEO speaking to employees would use a different tone compared to when they address shareholders

Note that these factors could differ between the audience addressed and the audience invoked. If the author invokes an audience that is too far removed from the real audience, the text is likely to fall flat or be unsuccessful. For example, an author writing a young adult novel might address actual teenagers but invoke a slightly more mature, idealized, or outdated idea of teenagers. If this invoked audience is too far removed from reality (e.g., using outdated slang or unrealistic situations), the book may fail to connect with its intended readers.

Adapting to Audience

Ways to adapt a message to the audience include:

• Adjusting language and terminology: The level of technicality will vary depending on the audience’s knowledge and familiarity with the topic. Similarly, the level of formality and tone will vary depending on the audience’s relationship to the author.
• Selecting appropriate examples and analogies: Examples and analogies that are relatable to the audience will be more memorable, so these should be based on the audience’s experiences, cultural references, and interests.
• Addressing potential concerns or counterarguments: Anticipating where an audience is likely to have questions or concerns and proactively addressing these shows understanding of the audience’s perspective.
• Choosing suitable emotional appeals: Different audiences have different values and motivations, so emotional appeals should be tailored to what matters to the audience.

III. Genre

Having examined purpose and audience, we now move on to our third key concept: genre. In rhetoric, genre refers to categories or types of communication that share similar characteristics in form, style, or content. Understanding genre is crucial for both creating and interpreting messages effectively.

Genre can be broken down into seemingly infinite categories, but this chapter will focus on some categories that you will encounter a lot in college, and that you are probably not familiar with. Most of these genres are the ones you will draw from when you find sources for your own research papers. Those genres include:

Newspaper Articles

• News briefs: Short, concise reports of current events
• Investigative reports: In-depth articles uncovering hidden information or wrongdoing
• Op-eds: Opinion pieces written by guest contributors
• Editorials: Opinion pieces representing the newspaper’s official stance
• Feature stories: Longer, more detailed articles exploring a topic in-depth
• Columns: Regular pieces by specific writers, often opinion-based

Magazine Articles

• Feature articles: In-depth, long-form pieces on a particular topic
• Personal essays: Reflective, first-person narratives
• Popular science and technology pieces: Accessible articles on scientific or technological topics
• How-to guides: Instructional articles providing step-by-step guidance
• Fashion and lifestyle pieces: Articles on trends, style, and daily living
• Cultural commentary: Analysis of current social and cultural phenomena
• Creative nonfiction essays: Literary pieces blending factual content with creative writing techniques
• Memoirs: Personal narratives focusing on specific life experiences

Academic Journal (Scholarly) Articles

• Empirical research reports: Articles presenting original research findings
• Interpretative/analytical essays: Pieces offering analysis of texts or ideas
• Literature reviews: Comprehensive summaries of existing research on a topic
• Theoretical articles: Pieces proposing, discussing, or critiquing theoretical frameworks
• Policy arguments: Articles advocating for specific policy changes based on research

Of course, these are just a handful of examples, focused on traditional print media (although many of these sources are made available online, as well).

If we were to add websites, online video, podcasts, and social media to our list, we can expand it even more. However, you’re less likely to be secondary audiences for those kinds of texts, so you’re probably much more familiar with them as genres.

Identifying a Text’s Genre

As a secondary audience for many of the texts you read in college, figuring out what genre you have in front of you can be a little tricky. Although there’s no foolproof method, the following clues should help you narrow it down:

• Where was the piece originally published? (If it was in a scholarly journal, it’s probably a scholarly article. If it was in a magazine, it’s some type of magazine article.) You may need to do a little sleuthing if you’re not familiar with the publication; Wikipedia can be a good resource to find out what a given publication is and what kinds of pieces it typically includes.
• Compare the text’s content to what is described in the list above.
• Look for a label. Sometimes articles will be labeled as “Opinion,” “Analysis,” “Feature,” or “Research Article.”
• Ask a librarian!

Genre Conventions and Expectations

Each genre has its own set of conventions and expectations, including:

• Structure and organization
  • Overall structure: Academic writing tends to use a “closed-form” structure, with a clearly stated thesis and focused body paragraphs, while other types of writing might be more narrative or free-flowing.
  • Introduction and conclusion: A news article typically begins with a concise lead paragraph summarizing key points, while an academic paper might start with a broad context before narrowing to a specific thesis statement. In many persuasive genres, the conclusion is a place to reiterate the main idea and end with a call to action, while genres geared toward entertainment may focus on ending with something witty or memorable.
  • Paragraphs and transitions: Magazine and newspaper articles tend to use short paragraphs with very specific information, while academic writing tends to have longer, more nuanced paragraphs with prominent transitional sentences and phrases.
• Style and tone
  • Level of formality: Academic writing and legal documents typically use a highly formal style, while magazine articles often employ a casual, conversational style.
  • Personal voice: Memoirs and personal essays heavily utilize the author’s unique voice, while scientific papers and news reports aim for a more objective, neutral style.
  • Level of technicality: Technical manuals and scientific papers use specialized jargon and complex terminology, while general interest articles and popular science writing aim to simplify technical concepts for a broader audience.
  • Emotional language: Magazine articles and newspaper opinion pieces often use emotive language to engage the audience, while academic writing and news reporting typically strive for a more neutral, factual tone.
  • Figurative language: Literary works often employ metaphors, similes, and other figurative devices, while technical writing and legal documents aim for literal, precise language.
• Length and format
  • Length: News briefs tend to be very short, while feature articles may be longer. Magazine articles vary in length, but generally don’t run more than a few pages, while journal articles are typically at least 10-12 pages long, and sometimes much longer!
  • Use of headings and subheadings: Business reports and technical documents often use multiple levels of headings to organize information, while newspaper articles rarely use explicit headings.
  • Page layout: Academic papers often follow strict formatting guidelines (e.g., APA, MLA), while magazines have more flexibility in layout and design.
  • Integration of visuals or multimedia elements: Academic articles often include charts, graphs, and tables, while magazine articles may tend to have illustrations or photographs. Web articles often incorporate hyperlinks, videos, and interactive elements.
• Use of evidence and support
  • Types of evidence: In academic articles, papers rely on empirical data and primary sources, while newspaper and magazine articles frequently incorporate interviews and eyewitness accounts.
  • Amount of evidence: Academic writing typically requires extensive evidence to support claims, while opinion pieces might rely more on logical argumentation and less on external evidence.
  • Integration of evidence: Literary analysis interweaves textual evidence with interpretation, while legal writing often includes extensive quotations from statutes and case law.
  • Citation practices: Academic writing uses formal citation styles (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago), while journalism often incorporates attributions within the text without formal citations.

IV. Medium

The final piece of our rhetorical puzzle is the medium. The medium is the channel through which a message is delivered. It can significantly impact how a message is conveyed and received, and is closely intertwined with our other concepts of purpose, audience, and genre.

Types of Media

Common types of media include:

• Written (print, digital text)
• Oral (speeches, podcasts)
• Visual (images, videos, infographics)
• Digital (websites, social media, interactive content)

How Medium Affects Message Delivery and Reception

The choice of medium influences:

• Message length and depth: Different media have varying constraints and expectations for how long a text can be, which in turn affects the depth of content. Shorter formats like tweets or Instagram captions require distilling complex ideas into bite-sized pieces, while longer formats like books or long-form articles allow for more nuanced discussions.
• Audience reach: Different media have varying potentials for reaching audiences, both in terms of size and demographics. Some media are better suited for reaching broad, general audiences, while others excel at targeting specific demographics or interest groups.
• Interactivity and feedback: Different media offer varying levels of interactivity between the sender and receiver of a message, as well as different mechanisms for feedback. More interactive media can allow for clarification, discussion, and the co-creation of meaning, while less interactive media rely more heavily on the initial message being clear and comprehensive.
• Permanence vs. ephemerality: Different media have varying degrees of permanence, which affects how long a message remains accessible and relevant. Ephemeral media might encourage more casual or immediate communication, while permanent media often involve more careful consideration of long-term impact.
• Multimodal possibilities: Different media offer various combinations of text, images, audio, and video, allowing for diverse ways of conveying information. The multimodal capabilities of a medium can enhance communication by engaging multiple senses or presenting information in complementary formats, which can improve understanding, retention, and engagement with the content.

V. Interplay of Concepts

As we’ve explored each of these concepts individually, you may have noticed that they are deeply interconnected. In this final section, we’ll examine how purpose, audience, genre, and medium influence each other.

1. Purpose drives genre and medium selection
2. Audience considerations affect all other elements
3. Genre conventions shape purpose and medium choices
4. Medium capabilities influence genre and audience reach

Case Study: Analysis of a TED Talk

Let’s examine a popular TED Talk to see how these concepts interact in a real-world example. We’ll analyze “The Power of Vulnerability” by Brené Brown, a talk that has garnered millions of views online. You can watch it yourself using the link in the citation at the end of this chapter.

Purpose

The exigence for this talk is the ongoing question of how to live a more fulfilling life, specifically addressing the role of vulnerability in human connection and happiness. The primary rhetorical aim of this talk is to persuade. Brown aims to motivate the audience to embrace vulnerability in their own lives. A secondary aim is to inform, as Brown educates the audience on her own research to support her argument.

Audience

The primary audience is the live attendees at the TEDx event, typically well-educated professionals interested in personal growth and new ideas. The secondary audience is the much larger online viewership of diverse backgrounds, ages, and cultures who are interested in self-improvement and psychological insights.

Genre

This communication falls under the genre of a conference presentation or lecture, specifically a TED Talk, which has its own set of conventions. These include a focus on “ideas worth spreading,” a time limit (usually around 18 minutes), the use of personal stories and humor, and often the inclusion of visual aids.

Medium

The talk was delivered orally to a live audience and recorded on video for online distribution. This dual medium allows for both immediate interaction with the live audience and widespread dissemination to a global online audience.

Analysis of Interplay

Purpose and Audience

• Brown’s choice of language and examples reflects her understanding of her audience’s educational level and interest in personal development.
• She uses humor and personal anecdotes to connect with the audience emotionally, making her message more relatable and persuasive.
• The complexity of her research is balanced with accessible explanations, catering to both the live audience of professionals and the diverse online audience.

Purpose and Genre

• The TED Talk format, with its emphasis on “ideas worth spreading,” aligns perfectly with Brown’s purposes of persuading and informing.
• The genre’s expectation of a clear, central idea is met with Brown’s focus on vulnerability.
• The time constraint of the TED Talk genre forces Brown to distill her years of research into key, impactful points, enhancing the persuasive power of her message.

Audience and Genre

• The TED Talk genre assumes an audience interested in innovative ideas, allowing Brown to present complex research findings in an accessible way.
• The genre’s typical length (around 18 minutes) requires Brown to distill her years of research into key points that will resonate with the audience.
• The expectation of a diverse, global audience (due to online distribution) influences Brown to use universally relatable examples and avoid culturally specific references.

Medium and Purpose

• The oral delivery allows Brown to use tone, pacing, and body language to enhance her message and connect with the audience.
• The video recording enables her to reach a much wider audience, amplifying her purpose of spreading her ideas about vulnerability.
• The dual medium (live talk and online video) allows Brown to achieve both immediate impact and long-term influence.

Medium and Audience

• The live presentation creates an intimate atmosphere, allowing Brown to gauge and respond to audience reactions in real-time.
• The online video format allows the secondary audience to pause, re-watch, and share the talk, expanding its reach and impact.
• The accessibility of the online medium enables Brown’s message to reach a global audience, potentially influencing people from diverse backgrounds.

Genre and Medium

• The TED Talk genre is optimized for both live presentation and video sharing, with an emphasis on visually engaging slides and dynamic speaking.
• The medium of online video distribution has shaped the TED Talk genre, encouraging speakers to craft globally relevant messages.
• The genre’s emphasis on personal stories and emotional connection is well-suited to both the immediacy of live delivery and the intimacy of individual online viewing.

This analysis demonstrates how purpose, audience, genre, and medium work together to create an effective piece of communication. Brown’s talk succeeds because these elements are well-aligned: her purpose suits the TED Talk genre, the genre meets the audience’s expectations, the medium supports her message, and all elements work together to engage and inspire the audience.

Conclusion

In conclusion, mastering the interplay of purpose, audience, genre, and medium is key to becoming a skilled communicator and critical thinker. By considering these elements in both your analysis of texts, you’ll be better equipped to develop nuanced critiques of what works (and doesn’t work) about a given text. Further, being consciously aware of these rhetorical elements can help you make more effective choices with the texts you create.

Related Writing Projects

• Rhetorical Analysis Essay – One Text
• Rhetorical Analysis Essay – Compare and Contrast Two Texts

Works Cited

Brown, Brené. “The Power of Vulnerability.” TED, June 2010, ted.com/talks/brene_brown_the_power_of_vulnerability?subtitle=en.

Ede, Lisa, and Andrea Lunsford. “Audience Addressed/Audience Invoked: The Role of Audience in Composition Theory and Pedagogy.” College Composition and Communication, vol. 35, no. 2, 1984, pp. 155–71. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/358093.