13 APA & MLA Citation & Documentation

Excelsior Online Writing Lab and Carie Schneider

Research papers at the college level will require some kind of documentation style. Documentation styles provide students, teachers, and researchers standards and specifications to follow for paper set up, in-text documentation, and references. They also will have recommendations for writing style, word choice, and in some cases, organization.

The most common documentation styles are APA (from the American Psychological Association) and MLA (from the Modern Language Association), and some fields require Chicago Style (from the University of Chicago Press).

While it may feel tedious learning the different aspects of a documentation style, it’s important to remember following style guidelines helps add credibility to your writing by providing you with a structured method for sharing your research with your audience.

Chapter Contents:

 

Locating Reference Information

As you’ll learn in this section of Citation & Documentation, part of writing within a particular documentation style, such as APA or MLA, is building a References or a Works Cited list with full publication information. But what happens when you’re looking at your sources and just are not sure where to find all the necessary information like publication dates, volume numbers for journal articles, edition numbers, and the like?

The following images link to PDF files which include helpful information about locating publication information you’ll need to build your References or Works Cited lists.

Print Book (Title/Author/Publisher)

Locating References Book

Print Book (Date of Publication)

Book - Date of Publication

Journal Article from a Database

Locating References Database

Online Journal Article

Locating References Journal Article

Website

Locating References Website

Formatting Titles

So, you need to use title case, but you need to know what it is and how to do it. Well, that depends on who you ask. No matter which style guide you use, the basic principle is the same: The first word of the title and subtitle are uppercased, and major words have the first letter of the word capitalized. However, each style guide has its own requirements for how to use title case for that style.

Below you will see the guidelines compiled for APA, MLA, and Chicago/Turabian.

Title Elements APA 7th Edition MLA 9th Edition Chicago 17th Edition / Turabian 9th Edition
Name used within the style Title case Title-style capitalization Headline-style capitalization
The first word of the title and subtitle Uppercase Uppercase Uppercase
The first word after a colon Uppercase Uppercase Uppercase
Major words (e.g. nouns, pronouns, verbs, etc.) Uppercase Uppercase (for titles in English; titles in other languages are sentence case) Uppercase (for titles in English; titles in other languages are sentence case)
Last word Uppercase only if it is a major word Uppercase Uppercase

(with one exception)1
Articles (a, an, the) Lowercase (unless it is the first word of the title or subtitle) Lowercase

(unless it is the first word of the title or subtitle)

 Lowercase

(unless it is the first or last word in a title or subtitle)
Coordinating conjunctions Lowercase if 3 or fewer letters (and, as, but, for, if, nor, or, so, yet)* Lowercase

(and, but for, nor, or, so, yet)*

 Lowercase

(and, but, for, or, and nor unless used as the first or last word in a title or subtitle)*
Prepositions If they are 3 letters or fewer, then lowercase them. (e.g. as, at, by, in, to, etc.) Lowercase (e.g. according to, as, between, in) Lowercase except when used as adverbs or as adjectives

“As” is lowercased no matter the part of speech.
“To” used as an infinitive Lowercase Lowercase Lowercase

(unless it is the first or last word in a title or subtitle)
Other notes A particle as part of a name is lowercased if it is normally lowercased in text. (von Trapp Family or Count de Saint-Germain)

1. “Lowercase the second part of a species name, such as fulvescens in Acipenser fulvescens, even if it is the last word in a title or subtitle” (CMOS, p. 527, 8.159).

*Listed coordinating conjunctions are directly from their respective manuals. See below for attributions to each manual.

Attributions:

American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1037/0000165-000

The Modern Language Association of America. (2021). MLA handbook (9th ed.). The Modern Language Association of America.

The University of Chicago Press. (2017). The Chicago manual of style (17th ed.). https://doi.org/10.7208/cmos17

Turabian, K. L. (2018). A manual for writers of research papers, theses, and dissertations: Chicago Style for students and researchers (9th ed.) (W.C. Booth, G. G. Colomb, J. M. Williams, J. Bizup, & W. T. Fitzgerald, Eds.). https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226430607.001.0001

APA Style:

You will often use sources for academic writing, and it’s important to know how to responsibly cite and integrate those sources into your own writing. APA format provides guidelines and structures for citing those sources in a way that helps you avoid plagiarism and give proper credit to your sources.

APA stands for the American Psychological Association and is the format designed for use within the field of psychology. However, other disciplines use APA as well, so always use the format your professor chooses.

In addition to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 7th edition, the APA maintains its own website with multiple examples of how to format your paper and cite your sources. If you’re unable to find the answer to your question here, check the APA Manual 7th edition or the APA website.

Cover of the APA Manual

Papers constructed according to APA guidelines generally include the following elements:

  • Title Page
  • Abstract
  • Body
  • Subsections within the body, with headings
  • Tables and Figures
  • References

In most cases, each of these elements will begin on a separate page, and it is important to note that not all academic papers will include all of these elements.

For specific types of reports, your subsections may need to be named with headings that reflect the type of report you are writing. For example, in reports on experiments or studies you’ll usually need to follow the IMRAD structure with Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion sections. Be sure to check with your instructor to determine what the expectations are for your paper.

The APA style demos in this section will provide you with more information regarding APA in-text citations and the references list.

APA Style Overview:

APA In-Text Citations:

 

APA In-Text Citations Table of Contents:

Single Author

When listing the source of information you are using in your paper, list the last name of the author (without their initials), followed by a comma, and then the year of publication. When referring to the author(s) directly in the text (also called a narrative citation), then list only the year (and page number, if needed for a direct quote).

 

Examples:

One scholar argued that it is impossible to measure social class (Calvert, 1982).

Calvert (1982) argued that it is impossible to measure social class.

Two Authors

Authors should be presented in the order that they appear in the published article. If they are cited within closed brackets, use the ampersand (&) between them. If they are not enclosed in brackets, then use the spelled out “and.”

Examples:

A well-known study argued that social class is rapidly becoming obsolete (Calvert & Liu, 1987).

Calvert and Liu (1987) argued that social class is rapidly becoming obsolete.

Three or More Authors

Starting with the first author mentioned in the text, the correct format is (Author et al., year). This includes even the first citation. All authors, up to 20, should be listed in the corresponding reference.

 

Examples:

Calvert et al. (1987) argued that the concept of social class is rapidly becoming obsolete.

The concept of social class is rapidly becoming obsolete (Calvert et al., 1987).

Group Author

With Abbreviations

For group authors with abbreviations, use the full name and the abbreviation in the first citation. Then, use only the abbreviation in subsequent citations.

Examples:

According to the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH, 2019), women between the ages of 40 and 59 have the highest rates of depression in the United States.

Women between the ages of 40 and 50 have the highest rates of depression in the United States (National Institute of Mental Health [NIMH], 2019).

Without Abbreviations

For group authors without abbreviations, simply list the group author with the usual citation format.

Examples:

According to Stanford University (2018), first-generation college students face many obstacles as they work to complete their degrees.

First-generation college students face many obstacles as they work to complete their degrees (Stanford University, 2018).

Multiple Publications, Same Author

If an author has multiple publications you need to cite, use a comma to separate the years of publication in chronological order (oldest to most recent). If the publications occur in the same year, the American Psychological Association Publication Manual recommends using suffixes a, b, c, etc.

  • NOTE: The corresponding letters should be used in the reference list, and these references should be ordered alphabetically by title.

 

Examples:

A recent study argued for the abolition of social class (Calvert, 2004, 2005a, 2005b).

Calvert (2004, 2005a, 2005b) argued for the abolition of social class.

Multiple Publications, Different Authors

When citing multiple authors for the same information, use semicolons to separate the different citations. The authors should be cited in alphabetical order, and, if there is a need to cite more than one source by the same author within a citation for multiple publications, place the years of publication in chronological order (oldest to most recent).

Example:

A recent study argued for the abolition of social class (Calvert, 1987; Liu, 2004, 2005; Smith, 2003).

Unknown or Anonymous Author

When the author of a work is not known, the title of the work will be used in place of the author. There are some important details to be aware of however.

  • If the title is long, it should be shortened for the in-text citation.
  • Titles should be in title case even though they will be in sentence case on the References page.
  • If the title is italicized in the reference, then it should also be italicized within the in-text citation.
Examples:

Children who are neglected suffer from trauma that can last a lifetime (Foundations of Social Literacy, 2018.)According to Foundations of Social Literacy, children who are neglected suffer from trauma that can last a lifetime (2018).

  • If the title of the work is not italicized within the reference, use quotation marks around the title.
Examples:

Vitamin D deficiency affects approximately one billion people worldwide (“Medical Science Today,” 2019).“Medical Science Today” professes that vitamin D deficiency affects approximately one billion people worldwide (2019).

  • If the work is attributed to “Anonymous,” use “Anonymous” in place of the author. There is no need to italicize or use quotes.
Example:
The field of psychology is filled with people who want to understand their own lives (Anonymous, 2020).

Personal Communications

Personal communications, which are considered “nonrecoverable data” by the APA,  are information that readers cannot typically access. These include personal interviews, emails, letters, and phone calls. This information should be cited within the text, but not included in a References list.

When citing a personal communication within the text, include the following information: (Author’s first initial. Author’s last name, personal communication, Date of publication).

Examples:

Opinions vary when it comes to the correct way to baste a turkey (J. Doe, personal communication, December 8, 2018).

Doe confided that turkey basting is not a precise art (personal communication, December 8, 2018).

Direct Quotes

While academic writing encourages paraphrasing over quoting, there are instances when it is necessary to cite a direct quotation. When doing so, follow the corresponding rules for the in-text citation type and add a page number to the end of the citation.

When using the author or authors’ names within the text (also called a narrative citation), the year citation comes after the author’s name, and the page number citation should be placed after the direct quotation. Be sure to put quoted material inside quotation marks. Place the period after the citation for all quotes shorter than 40 words.

Examples:

According to Smith (2018), “the number of birds in North America has declined by 2.9 billion since 1970” (p. 31).

“The number of birds in North America has declined by 2.9 billion since 1970” (Smith, 2018, p. 31).

  • NOTE: For multiple pages, use pp. instead of the single p.

No Page Numbers

To cite quotations of material without page numbers, the American Psychological Publication Manual recommends providing section names, heading names, or paragraph numbers—essentially providing readers with necessary information to locate the quotation.

Example:

According to Williams (2019), “gravity is actually the bending of space” (para. 5).

APA References

Every cited source from your essay, with the exception of personal communications, should appear in your References page, which comes at the end of the essay.

The References page must conform to the following rules:

  • Begin on a separate page at the end of your essay, using the same format as your essay (i.e., one-inch margins and page number).
  • Entries in your list of references should be alphabetized by the authors’ last names. Use the title if a work does not have an author.
  • Center and bold the word References at the top of the page.
  • Double-space all references, even within individual references.
  • Use a hanging indent of 0.5 inches for each reference. This means the first line of each entry will be flush against the left margin, and subsequent lines are indented 0.5 inches.

Click on the following pages to view information on how to create a specific reference entry for your source type.

In this video on APA format, you’ll see a sample references list with some tips on creating a references list of your own.

APA References Table of Contents:

 

Print Book

Single Author

Elements: Author’s Last name, Author’s First and Middle initials. (Year of publication). Title italicized. Publisher.

Larson, M. S. (1977). The rise of professionalism. University of California Press.

Multiple Authors (two to 20)

List up to 20 authors by their last names followed by initials. Use an ampersand (&) before the last author.

Rivano, N. S., Hoson, A., & Stallings, B. (2001). Regional integration and economic development. Palgrave.

Multiple Authors (21 or more)

When listing 21 or more authors, list the first 19 authors with names and initials, followed by an ellipsis (no ampersand), and then the final author’s name.

Crocco, F., de Barros, B., McCaffery, B., Croop, P., Aldrich, L., Abeyta, M., Smith, J. Sands, C. Pearson, B., McCage, J., Jackson, C., Walker-Williams, H., Sekera, L., Lee, N., DiCamillo, K., Silver, J., Dvorak, A., Fuller, M., Thoreau, H., . . . Healy, A. (2017). Creativity and design. Abbeville Press.

Revised Editions

Elements: Author’s Last name, Author’s First and Middle initial, & Last names and initials of other authors, if any. (Year of publication). Title italicized (Number of edition followed by ed.). Publisher.

Hochman, J. (1994). Strategies for urban farming (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall.

Edited Books

Elements: Editor’s Last name, Editor’s First and Middle initial, & Last names and initials of other editors, if any. (Ed. or Eds.). (Year of publication). Title italicized. Publisher.

Siskin, M. (Ed.). (1988). The alphabet of desire. Plenum.

Chapter or Article in an Edited Book

Elements: Chapter Author’s Last name, Chapter Author’s First and Middle initials, & Last names and initials of other authors, if any. (Year of publication). Title of chapter or article. In Editor(s) First and Middle initials and Last names (Ed. or Eds.), Book title italicized (pp. followed by the page range for the chapter/article). Publisher.

Rodriguez, J. (1999). Imperfection is meaningless: On prayer and chanting. In P. Smith (Ed.), Looking ahead (pp. 107-112). St. Martin’s Press.

Online Book

Elements: Author’s Last name, Author’s First and Middle initials, & Last names and initials of other authors, if any. (Year of publication). Title of the book italicized. URL to the full text ebook or to the distributor’s homepage

Austen, J. (1813). Pride and prejudice. http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1342

Online Book with a DOI

Smith, J. (2018). Women’s support groups. Routledge. https://doi.org/10/1022/0000091-00

Edited Ebook from a Library Database

  • NOTE: Use (Ed.) if there is a single editor.

Randall, S. & Ford, H. (Eds.) (2011). Long term conditions: A guide for nurses and health care professionals. http://www.ebrary.com

Print Journal Article

  • NOTE: In the 7th edition, the style manual of the American Psychological Association no longer differentiates between journals with and without continuous pagination. If the journal does not have an issue number, simply omit it from the reference.

Elements: Author’s Last name, Author’s First and Middle initials, & Last names and initials of other authors, if any. (Year of publication). Title of article. Title of Journal italicized, Volume number italicized(Issue Number), Page numbers.

Winans, A. D. (1992). The Mafioso and American political culture. Journal of Popular Culture, 22(1), 21-47.

Online Journal Article

Journal Article with a DOI (Digital Object Identifier)

Elements: Author’s Last name, Author’s First and Middle initials, & Last names and initials of other authors, if any. (Year). Title of article. Title of Journal italicized, Volume number italicized(Issue number), Page numbers. DOI

Herbst-Damm, K. L., & Kulik, J. A. (2005). Volunteer support, marital status, and the survival times of terminally ill patients. Health Psychology, 24(2), 225-229. https://doi.org/10.1037/027806133.24.2.225

Journal Article without a DOI, with a Nondatabase URL

Elements: Author’s Last name, Author’s First and Middle initials, & Last names and initials of other authors, if any. (Year). Title of article. Title of Journal italicized, volume number italicized(Issue number), Page numbers. URL

Kelley, H., & Betsalel, K. (2004). Mind’s fire: Language, power, and representations of stroke. Anthropology & Humanism, 29(2), 104-116. http://www.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/&28ISSN%291548-1409

Journal Article without a DOI from Academic Research Database

  • NOTE: Do not include the database name or URL.

Anderson, H. (2019). Teaching during times of trauma. Education Today, 36(1), 35-43.

Print Magazine Article

  • NOTE: Magazine citations are similar to journal citations, but they include additional information about the publication date. For monthly magazines, the month is included. For weekly magazines, both the month and day are included.

Elements: Author’s Last name, Author’s First and Middle initials, & Last names and initials of other authors, if any. (Year, Month and Day of publication). Title of article. Title of Magazine italicized, Volume number italicized(Issue number, if available), Page numbers.

Cooper, H. (1998, May). The trouble with debt. Kiplinger’s Personal Finance Magazine, 43, 100-103.

Online Magazine Article

Elements: Author’s Last name, Author’s First and Middle initials, & Last names and initials of other authors, if any. (Year, Month and Day of publication, if available). Title of article. Title of Magazine italicized, Volume number italicized(Issue number, if available). URL or DOI link

Vogel, C. (2008, June). A honeymoon cut short: How one couple survived the sinking of the Lusitania. American Heritage. http://www.americanheritage.com/honeymoon-cut-short

Article from a Database

  • NOTE: If an article from a database includes a DOI, provide the DOI link as you would for any online journal article. If the article does not include a DOI, the reference will look like a print version of the article. The 7th edition of American Psychological Association Publication Manual states, “Do not include the database name or URL.”

Elements: Author’s Last name, Author’s First and Middle initials, & Last names and initials of other authors, if any. (Date). Title of article. Title of Journal italicized, Volume number italicized(Issue number), Page numbers.

Mershon, D. H. (1998, November). Star trek on the brain: Alien minds, human minds. American Scientist, 86(6), 585.

Print Newspaper Article

Elements: Author’s Last name, Author’s First and Middle initial, & Last names and initials of other authors, if any. (Year, Month and Day of publication). Title of article. Title of Newspaper italicized, Page numbers.

Clark, D. E. (1994, March 21). Health factor in cauliflower still elusive. New York Times, C1.

Online Newspaper Article

Elements: Author’s Last name, Author’s First and Middle initials, & Last names and initials of other authors, if any. (Year, Month and Day of publication). Title of article. Title of Newspaper italicized. URL for article

Hunter, J.D. (2019, April 14). Pressure cooker: A Tiger Woods recipe. The Oregonian. https://www.oregonlive.com/sports/2019/04/pressure-cooker-a-tiger-woods-recipe-commentary.html

Webpage on a News Website

Elements: Author’s Last name, Author’s First and Middle initials, & Last names and initials of other authors, if any. (Date published or updated). Title of webpage italicized. Site Name. URL

Street, F. (2020, January 9). How the village that inspired ‘Frozen’ is dealing with overtourism. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/overtourism-frozen-hallstatt-austria/index.html

Webpage

Elements: Author (person or organization). (Date published or updated). Title of webpage italicized. Site Name. URL

Boyd, V. (2012, January 15). About Zora Neale Hurston. Zora Neale Hurston. http://zoranealehurston.com/about/

  • NOTE: If the above example had no author or date, the title of the webpage would be moved to the front, and (n.d.) should be used to reflect that no date is available.

About Zora Neale Hurston. (n.d.). Zora Neale Hurston. http://zoranealehurston.com/about

Television, Film, Podcasts, & Video

Television Broadcast

  • NOTE: Identify the primary contributors at the beginning of the citation and, in parentheses, identify their function, e.g. Director, Executive producer, Writer, etc.

Elements: Last name, First and Middle initials, & Last names and initials of other primary contributors, if any. (Function). (Year, Month and Day, if available). Title of episode. In First and middle initials followed by Last name (Executive Producer or Producers), Title of series italicized. Production company.

Levy, S. (Director). (2017, October 27). Chapter three: The pollywog. In M. Duffer, R. Duffer, S. Levy, D. Cohen, & I. Paterson (Executive Producers), Stranger Things. 21 Laps Entertainment; Netflix.

Film

  • NOTE: Identify the primary contributors at the beginning of the citation and, in parentheses, identify their function, e.g. Director, Executive producer, Writer, etc.

Elements: Last name, First and Middle initials, & Last names and initials of other primary contributors, if any. (Function). (Year, Month and Day, if available). Title of the film italicized [Film]. Studio or Distributor.

Coen, J. & Coen, E. (Directors). (1996). Fargo [Film]. Gramercy Pictures.

Podcast Episode

  • NOTE: Provide the podcast episode number after the title of the episode in parentheses, but this can be omitted if the series does not number episodes. In the brackets after the episode title and number, specify if the podcast is audio or video. If the URL of the podcast is not known (if accessed via an app), simply omit the URL.

Elements: Last name, First and Middle initials, & Last names and initials of other primary contributors, if any. (Function). (Year, Month and Day, if available). Title of episode (No. episode number) [Audio or video podcast episode]. In Title of the series in italics. URL

Garber, J. (Host). (2019, November 22). The grazing revolution: A radical plan to save the Earth (No. 638) [Audio podcast episode]. In The farming podcast. https://www.thefarmingpodcast.com/2019/11/

YouTube Video or Other Streaming Video

Elements: Last name, First and Middle initials, & Last names and initials of other primary contributors, if any. (Year released, Month and Day). Title of the video italicized [Video]. Streaming Service. URL

Ezekiel, S. (2012, March 21). MIT understanding laser and fiberoptics: Fiberoptics fundamentals[Video]. YouTube. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0DCrIAxEv_Y

Music

Album

Elements: Composer or Artist. (Year). Title of album.Label.

  • NOTE: It is not necessary to denote the format of the work, but this information may be included in brackets.

Petty, T. (1994). Wildflowers [Album]. Warner Records.

Single Song or Track

Elements: Composer or Artist. (Year). Title of song. [Song]. On Title of album. Label.

  • NOTE: It is not necessary to denote the format of the work, but this information may be included in brackets.

Childish Gambino. (2016). Zombies [Song]. On Awaken my love. Glassnote.

Thesis & Dissertation

Unpublished Master’s Thesis

Elements: Author’s Last name, Author’s First and Middle initials. (Year submitted). Title of thesis italicized [Unpublished master’s thesis]. Name of College/University.

Blount, C. (1992). Genre Envy: The threat of theory and the promise of creative writing [Unpublished master’s thesis]. University of South Dakota.

Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation

Elements: Author’s Last name, Author’s First and Middle initials. (Year submitted). Title of dissertation italicized [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Name of College/University.

Baume, D. (1994). Cracking up the south: Irony in Eudora Welty [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of North Carolina.

Published Thesis or Dissertation

  • NOTE: Published theses and dissertations are available in databases, such as Pro-Quest Dissertations and Theses Global database, a university archive, or a personal website.

Elements: Author’s Last name, Author’s First and Middle initials. (Year submitted). Title of dissertation or thesis italicized [Doctoral dissertation or Master’s thesis, Name of University]. Name of Database or Archive. URL if published online

Finnian, R. C. (1996). Development and depression in southern teenagers [Doctoral dissertation, University of Minnesota]. ProQuest Dissertations.

Reports

Reports are similar to journal articles because they typically present research. Report references should be formatted the same as a book, but keep the following in mind:

  • If the report has one or more authors, list those first as you would with a book.
  • If the report has a number assigned to it, then that number needs to be included in the reference. It should be placed in parentheses immediately after the title.
  • If the report comes from a government agency or organization and no author is listed, list the organization name first.
  • If the publisher is the same as the authoring agency, omit the publisher from the source element.

Report with Author(s)

Elements: Last name, First and Middle initials. (Year released, Month and Day). Title of report italicized(Report Number). Publisher Name (if different from authors). DOI or URL.

Smith, J. A., & Jones, S. P. (2013). The effects of applying the Excelsior College OWL’s reading strategies in freshman writing classes (Report No. 123). https://www.fdlp.gov/govinfo-excelsior-owl

Report From a Government Agency

Elements: Organization Name. (Year). Title of report italicized (Report Number). DOI or URL

National Council of Online Colleges. (2018). How open educational resources help online colleges stay afloat. https://ncoc.ho-open-educational-resources-help-online-colleges-stay-afloat/2018.pdf

Social Media

Tweet

Elements: Last name, First and Middle initials or Name of Group. [@username]. (Year, Month and Day). Content of the post up to the first 20 words italicized [Description of audiovisuals] [Source type]. Site Name. URL

NASA. [@NASA]. (2020, January 5). A team of astronomers have found EGS77—the farthest galaxy group known to date! [Video attached] [Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/NASAUniverse/status/1213925744352661504

Facebook Post

Elements: Last name, First and Middle initials or Name of Group. [@username]. (Year, Month and Day). Content of the post up to the first 20 words italicized [Description of audiovisuals] [Source type]. Site Name. URL

Excelsior Online Writing Lab. [@ExcelsiorOWL]. (2019, July 2). Another application for questioning is to develop good research questions. [Thumbnail with link attached] [Status update]. Facebook. https://www.facebook.com/ExcelsiorOWL/posts/1149183315268024

Instagram Photo or Video

Elements: Last name, First and Middle initials or Name of Group. [@username]. (Year, Month and Day). Content of the post up to the first 20 words italicized [Description of audiovisuals]. Site Name. URL

Sulic, L. [@lukasulicworld]. (2019, December 31). We wish you a happy new year! [Photograph]. Instagram. https://www.instagram.com/p/B6vTyaZHNU9/?igshid=141g9y12b4gfn

Other Sources

Book Review

  • NOTE: It is often preferable to find and cite the full book/ebook, but book reviews can be used and cited when what the reviewer has to say is applicable to your research.

Elements: Reviewer’s Last name, Reviewer’s First and Middle initials. (Year, Month and Day). Title of the review [Review of the book Title of the book italicized, by Author’s First and Middle initials Author’s Last name]. Title of the Periodical in which the Review is Published italicized, Volume number italicized(Issue number if available), Page numbers. If found online, include the DOI or the URL

Flower, T. (1998, February 24). Blues sisters [Review of the book Blues legacies and black feminism: Gertrude “Ma” Rainey, Bessie Smith, and Billie Holiday, by A.Y. Davis]. Village Voice, 8, 139-141. http://www.villagevoice.com

Software

Elements: Author’s Last name, Author’s First and Middle initials, & Last names and initials of other authors, if any. (Year of publication). Title of program in italics (Version) [Computer software or Mobile app]. Publisher Name or App Store. URL if available.

Adobe Photoshop (Version 6) [Computer software]. (2000). Adobe Systems Incorporated.

Personal Communications

Personal communications, which are considered “nonrecoverable data” by the APA, are information that readers cannot typically access. These include personal interviews, emails, letters, and phone calls. This information should be cited within the text, but not included in a References list.

 

MLA Style

MLA stands for the Modern Language Association, and its style guidelines have been assisting authors since 1951. In 2016, the MLA Handbook introduced a template using core elements in an effort to simplify much of the documentation process in MLA format. In 2021, the ninth edition was expanded with considerably more content and visuals.

MLA Handbook

MLA Formatting: The Basics

Papers constructed according to MLA guidelines should adhere to the following elements:

  • Double-space all of the text of your paper (including entries within Works Cited).
  • Use a clear font between 11 and 13 points. One example is Times New Roman font.
  • Use one-inch margins on all sides and indent the first line of a paragraph one half-inch from the left margin.
  • Add a running head in the upper right-hand corner with your last name, a space, and then a page number. Pages should be numbered consecutively with Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, 4, etc.), one-half inch from the top and flush with the right margin.
  • List your name, your instructor’s name, the course, and the date double-spaced in the upper left-hand corner of the first page. This is your header. There is no cover page.
  • Center the title on the next double-spaced line after the header.
  • Provide in-text citations for all quoted, paraphrased, and summarized information in your paper.
  • Include an alphabetized Works Cited page at the end of your paper that gives full bibliographic information for each item cited in your paper.
  • If you use endnotes, include them on a separate page before your Works Cited page.

The following parts of this section will provide you with more information regarding MLA formatting, in-text citations, and the Works Cited entries. There are also videos that give an overview of MLA in-text citations and the Works Cited section. The information in this section follows the MLA Handbook, 9th edition. MLA guidelines do change over time, so it’s important to be aware of the most current information. As always, follow the requirements of your teacher or professor; their requirements take precedence.

MLA Format: Overview Video

*NOTE: page formatting instructions have not changed between MLA 8th edition (2016) and MLA 9th edition (2021). Regardless, follow the page setup requirements of your instructor or professor. 

MLA In-Text Citations

MLA citations follow specific conventions that distinguish them from other styles. In-text citations are also sometimes known as “parenthetical citations” because they are enclosed in parentheses. Most often, the author’s last name and the page number(s) from which the quotation or paraphrase is taken must appear in parentheses at the end of the sentence.

At the end of the day Wilbur made “in excess of half a million dollars” (Marx 43).

 

If you use the name of the author to set up your quote or paraphrase, mention the full author’s name the first time in the sentence; thereafter use only the last name. Then put the page number without p. or pp. in the parentheses at the end of the sentence.

According to Marx, Wilbur made “in excess of half a million dollars” (43).

 

Page numbers should appear as they do in the source. If the source is only one page, do not add a page number in the citation. Examples of how numbers could appear in citations include 422, xxvi, and D32.

If other location types are used within a citation, they are listed often using abbreviations. The table below shows some location options with the appropriate abbreviations. When using any of these location types, add a comma within the citation after the author’s name. Only use the location type if they are included in the source. For example, do not use line or paragraph numbers if they are not included in the source referenced.

Location Appropriate Abbreviation
chapter(s) ch. or chs.
line Do not abbreviate. Write out line or lines.
paragraph(s) par. or pars.
scene sc.
section(s) sec. or secs.

 

  • NOTE: If you reference the work as a whole, page numbers are not required within the citation.
    If an ebook is used, use page numbers that are consistent across devices. Chapter numbers are also acceptable. However, do not use location numbers as they can vary in different devices.

If you need to cite more than one source in your in-text citation, you should use a semicolon to separate the sources.

(Jones 101; Williams 23).

It’s important to remember, in MLA style, each citation in your text must have a complete bibliographic entry in your Works Cited page, so, if readers want to go to the original source, they can!

The examples above are just a few of the most common examples of in-text citations in MLA style. The following sections provide more detailed information about in-text citing in MLA.

MLA In-Text Citation Walkthrough Video

*NOTE: While this video is based on the MLA 8th edition style guidelines, the rules for placement and formatting of in-text citation entries has not changed with the 9th edition (2021).

MLA In-Text Citation Table of Contents

Single Author

When you quote or paraphrase a source, list the last name of the author, followed by the page number.

Example:
According to most experts, “the best way to increase a child’s literacy” is to read to them every night (Wolf 220–240).

Two Authors

If your source has two authors, separate their last names with the word “and.” The authors’ names should be listed in the order they appear in the published work.

Example:
According to most experts, “the best way to increase a child’s literacy” is to read to them every night (Wolf and Munemo 220–240).

The first time the authors are mentioned in the text, the full names of both authors should be used.

Example:
James Wolf and Alice Munemo note that children whose parents read to them every night receive higher scores on literacy tests (220–240).

Three or More Authors

If your source has three or more authors, you should include the first author’s name followed by et al.

Example:

According to most experts, “the best way to increase a child’s literacy” is to read to them every night (Wolf et al. 220–240).

 

The first time the authors are mentioned in the text, one option is to list all of the authors’ full names. Alternatively, it is acceptable to mention the first author’s full name with “and colleagues” or “and others” after the name.

Example:

James Wolf and colleagues note that children whose parents read to them every night receive higher scores on literacy tests (220–240).

Multiple Works by the Same Author

If more than one work by an author is cited, include shortened titles for the works to distinguish them from each other.

Example if the author’s name is mentioned:

Obama has argued that the invasion was a bad idea (“Too Soon” 42), though he has acknowledged elsewhere that it led to much good (“A Stronger Country” 13).

Example if the author’s name and title are mentioned:

In “Too Soon,” Obama argued that the invasion was a bad idea (42).

Example if the author’s name is not mentioned in the sentence:

Photography, because it is both science and art, seems to be “a bridge discipline” (Barthes, “Of Loss and Cameras” 45).

 

Notice that when all three elements are used within the parenthetical citation, there is a comma added after the author’s name.

Multiple Sources in the Same Citation

If multiple sources are cited within the same in-text citation, separate each citation with a semicolon. The sources do not need to be alphabetized within the citation.

Example:

The importance of family bonds and connections is immeasurable (Pickens 21; Bulmore 68).

Corporate Author

If a source is created by an organization, the author element (name of the organization) must be abbreviated to only the noun phrase within the citation, minus any articles. The citation will point the reader to the full name within the Works Cited content. In the text and in the Works Cited, use the full name of the work.

The Excelsior Online Writing Lab (OWL) would be Excelsior Online Writing Lab because Lab is the noun. The words that come before it are modifying the word Lab. However, the National Academy of Medicine would be abbreviated to National Academy. Academy is the noun.

Examples:

Citations

According to the National Academy of Medicine, “sources should be science-based, objective, transparent, and accountable.”

“Sources should be science-based, objective, transparent, and accountable” (National Academy).

Work Cited

National Academy of Medicine. “NAM & WHO Encourage Digital Platforms to Apply Global Principles for Identifying Credible Sources of Health Information.” 24 Feb. 2022, https://nam.edu/nam-who-encourage-digital-platforms-to-apply-global-principles-for-identifying-credible-sources-of-health-information/.

Anonymous or Unknown Author

If the author is unknown, use an abbreviated version of the work’s title or description. The beginning phrase of the title or description should be used without the beginning article (a, an, the). If your title is a noun phrase, it should not be abbreviated. Format the title (or abbreviated title, or description) consistent with the formatting within the Works Cited. For example, if the title is italicized or in quotes on the Works Cited page, it should also be italicized or in quotes here.

Example:

An anonymous source claimed that the Iraq invasion was a bad idea from the beginning (“Bush Cannot Win” 104).

No Page Numbers

If a work, such as a website, does not include page numbers, then omit this portion of the in-text citation.

Example:

Marx used “class” in “two different ways” (Calvert).

 

Some sources—like an ebook—employ location indicators other than page numbers. If your work is divided into stable sections like chapters, those sections may be cited. Do not use the location numbers used within an ebook as the locations are often specific to that app or device.

Example:

Marx used “class” in “two different ways” (Calvert, ch. 4).

Verse

  • NOTE: Some works are classics and have accepted abbreviations that can be used. For plays, it is always acceptable to use the name or abbreviated name of the play. If you are interested in using these abbreviations, there is a list in Appendix 1 within the MLA Handbook. This list has abbreviations for works by Chaucer and Shakespeare as well as books within the Bible.

Play

Most poems and verse plays provide line numbers. When quoting lines of verse, avoid using page numbers and cite by whatever categories you can provide (title of play, act, scene, and line). Make sure to separate the numbers with periods. In the citation, use the title of the play, the act and scene separated by a period, and the line numbers without the word “line.” The citation examples below refer to title, act, scene, and line numbers.

Examples:

When Prospero says to Ferdinand, “All thy vexations / Were but my trials of thy love, and thou / Hast strangely stood the test,” he reveals his own surprise in his friend’s dedication to him (Tempest 4.1.5–7).

When Polonius says, “This above all: to thine own self be true, / And it must follow, as the night the day, / Thou canst not then be false to any man,” he is giving timeless and wise advice to his son, Laertes (Hamlet 1.3.78–80).

Poem

For verse works, such as poems, include line numbers in your in-text citations if the lines are included in your source.

When you are citing only line numbers, write out the full word “line” or “lines.”

Example:

In “April Rain Song,” Hughes uses sibilance to mimic the sound of raindrops on his roof, “The rain plays a little sleep song on our roof at night” (line 6).

If you do not use the author’s name or the title of the work (or both) in your prose prior to the citation, include that information, separated by a comma, in the parenthetical citation.

Example:

The poet uses sibilance to mimic the sound of raindrops on his roof, “The rain plays a little sleep song on our roof at night” (Hughes, “April Rain Song,” line 6).

If it is clear that you are referencing only line numbers from within the same work, you only have to use the word “line” or “lines” in the first citation. After that, you can use just the number.

Example:

Poe wrote, “Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary” (line 1).

Later in the poem, Poe wrote, “Deep into that darkness peering, long I stood there wondering, fearing, / Doubting, dreaming dreams no mortal ever dared to dream before” (25–26).

Scripture

When citing scripture the first time, add part or all (depending on length and omit articles) of the first element from the citation from the Works Cited page. Follow that with an abbreviated name of the book as well as chapter and verse numbers. Chapter and verse(s) will be separated with a period. A specific edition should be in italics, but the Bible, Koran, and Talmud without specific editions should not be italicized.

Citation Examples:
He wrote, “A mild answer turns away wrath, sharp words stir up anger” (New Jerusalem Bible, Prov. 15.1).
The Holy Bible says, “Wisdom is the principal thing; therefore get wisdom; and with all thy getting get understanding” (Prov. 4.7).
In the Bible it says, “Wisdom is the principal thing; therefore get wisdom; and with all thy getting get understanding” (Holy Bible, Prov. 4.7).

Works Cited

The New Jerusalem Bible. Joseph Henry Wansbrough, general editor, Catholic Online, https://www.catholic.org/bible/book.php?id=24&bible_chapter=15.

The Holy Bible. Authorized King James Version, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, 1979.

Plays

In-text citations from plays have different formatting depending on whether the play is written in verse or in prose; see above for how to cite plays written in verse. When quoting lines of verse, avoid using page numbers and cite by whatever categories you can provide (title of play, act, scene, and line). Make sure to separate the numbers with periods. In the citation, use the title of the play, the act and scene separated by a period, and the line numbers. The citation examples below refer to title, act, scene, and line numbers.

When referencing commonly studied plays written in prose, list the author and page number first, followed by the act and/or scene, in your in-text citation. Separate the page number from the rest of the details with a semi-colon.

Prose example:

The audience laughs when Vladimir says, “There is a man all over you blaming on his boots the faults of his feet” (Beckett 8; act 1).

Indirect Sources (Sources Quoted in Other Sources)

The MLA Handbook recommends taking material from the original source whenever possible. If you need to use indirect quotations, use “qtd. in” to indicate the source consulted. If it is clear in the text that the source is secondhand, “qtd. in” is not needed within the citation.

Example:

Jones claimed that runners who “drank regularly usually stopped running after a few months” (qtd. in Salazar 212).

MLA Works Cited

With the 2016 update (8th edition), MLA changed and simplified the way your Works Cited entries should be formatted. Instead of offering a specific way to format each and every source time, MLA offers a streamlined approach using something called “containers.” The ninth edition (2021) continues to use this system.

Author. Title. Title of container 1, other contributors, version, number, publisher, publication date, location. Title of container 2, other contributors, version, number, publisher, publication date, location.These containers, pictured here, provide you with the required elements, order, and punctuation for each of your Works Cited entries.

As you work to format your Works Cited entries, you will notice that some sources require only one container, depicted at the right. These are sources that you access directly from their original publication, such as books, an online magazine article, and general websites.
You should follow the order of items listed in the container, following the simplified punctuation rules you see in the container as well. Not all elements will apply to every citation. Use only the elements that apply. You will place a period after the author and the title of the source. Then, you should place commas after each item until the last item used in the container.

Two containers are required for sources that you access through places like library databases. An example of MLA’s “two container” structure is depicted at the left. Here, you will notice there is a place for the first container, with the original publication information. Below the first container, the second container provides publication information for where you retrieved that information. For example, a journal article you access through your library’s databases will have its original publication information (container 1) and access information from the online database (container 2).

In the following sections, you can access interpretations of MLA format for Works Cited entries for a wide variety of sources. These interpretations follow the MLA “container” system. Remember that not all elements are needed. Only use the elements that are needed for your source.

MLA Works Cited Page Setup Walkthrough Video:

*NOTE: While this video is based on the MLA 8th edition style guide, the page design for the Works Cited entries has not changed with the 9th edition (2021).

MLA Works Cited List Table of Contents

Print Books

Single Author

Minot, Stephen. Three Genres. Pearson, 2003.

Multiple Author Books

Two authors:

Sennett, Richard, and Jonathan Cobb. The Hidden Injuries of Class. Vintage Books, 1973.

More than Two Authors:

NOTE: For more than two authors: list only the first author followed by the phrase “et al.” (Latin abbreviation for “and others”; no period after “et”) in place of the other authors’ names.

Smith, John, et al. Writing and Erasing: New Theories for Pencils. Utah State UP, 2001.

Two or More Books by the Same Author

NOTE: If you are accessing a print book, then you will need just one container for publication information. When you list multiple works by the same author on your Works Cited page, all entries after the first one use three hyphens or three em dashes and a period in place of the author’s name. List alphabetically by title.

Young, Dean. Elegy on a Toy Piano. U of Pittsburgh P, 2005.

———. Embryoyo: New Poems. McSweeney’s, 2007.

Corporate Author

NOTE: Any articles or legal reference to the organization should be omitted from the name.

French Cheese Association. Cheese for Life. Fromage Press, 1996.

Book with No Author

NOTE: When you have a book with no author, you should begin with the title of the book.

Encyclopedia of Cats. Feline Press, 1991.

A Translated Book

Marquez, Gabriel Garcia. One Hundred Years of Solitude. Translated by Gregory Rabassa, Harper and Row, 1970.

NOTE: If your writing is focused on the actual translation work itself, it would be acceptable to cite this same citation as follows.

Rabassa, Gregory, translator. One Hundred Years of Solitude. By Gabriel Garcia, Harper and Row, 1970.

Republished Book

If your source has been republished, the MLA Handbook suggests providing the reader with the original publication date. You should always include the publication date of the source you consulted, but writers with a specialist knowledge of the subject may want to include the original publication date for the reader’s benefit.

Thomas, Paul. Boy Trouble. 1982. State Press, 1999.

In this example, the first date is the original date of publication, and the second is the publication date of the source consulted.

Subsequent Edition of a Book, Prepared by the Author

Minot, Stephen. Three Genres. 8th ed., Pearson, 2007.

Subsequent Edition of a Book, Prepared by an Editor Who is Not the Author

Shelley, Mary. Frankenstein. Edited by J. Paul Hunter, 7th ed., W. W. Norton, 1995.

Entire Anthology or Collection

Lyons, Paul, editor. The Greatest Gambling Stories Ever Told. Lyons Press, 2002.

Essay, Poem, or Short Story in an Anthology, Reference, or Collection

To cite a work in an anthology or collection, provide the author and title of the specific work first. Then, provide information for the anthology or collection.

Young, Willie. “Knowing the Unknowable.” Poker and Philosophy, edited by Eric Bronson, Carus Publishing Company, 2006, pp. 41-57.

Coleman, Wanda. “Job Hunter.” For a Living: The Poetry of Work, edited by Nicholas Coles and Peter Oresick, U of Illinois P, 1995, p. 105.

Article in a Reference Book

If an article in a reference work has no author, you should begin with the title of the article.

“Discourse.” The Dictionary of Literary Theory. 2nd ed., Penguin, 1991.

Multivolume Works

MLA requires different formatting depending on how many volumes of a multi-volume work you are referencing for your citation:

Citing Only One Volume:

If you are citing just one volume of a multi-volume work, list just that number after “Vol.” as supplemental information at the end of your citation.

“On the Heavens.” The Complete Works of Aristotle, edited by J. Barnes, Oxford Translation, Princeton UP, 1971. Vol. 1.

Citing More than One Volume:

When citing some or all of a multivolume set, add up the total number of volumes and include that total with “vols” as a supplemental item at the end of your citation.

Lo Kuan-Chung. Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Translated by C. H. Brewitt-Taylor, Tuttle Publishing, 2002, Tokyo. 3 vols.

An Introduction, Preface, Forward, or Afterword

If there is only a generic name for the section (e.g. Introduction), add it in the title area without quotes or italics.

Carter, Billy. Introduction. Southern Beers, Jersey City Press, 1977, pp. 2–14.

If the author of the part cited is different from the author of the book, then write the full name of the complete work’s author after the word “by.”

Carter, Billy. Introduction. Southern Beers, by Thomas Budweiser, Jersey City Press, 1977, pp. 2–14.

If the section has a detailed name, use it in quotes. In this situation, you normally do not need to use the generic name.

Carter, Billy. “Why I Am Inspired by Hops.” Southern Beers, by Carter, Jersey City Press, 1977, pp. 2–14.

Ebooks

According to MLA, an ebook is defined “as a digital book that lacks a URL and that you use software to read on a personal electronic device.” Most often, this will just require one container. Normally, an ebook is noted within the version element, and the date should use only the year. If an ebook format (e.g. EPUB, MOBI, AZW, PDF) needs to be noted, possibly to indicate formatting for that publication type, it can be added as a supplemental element at the end of the citation.

Nixon, Robin. Learning PHP, MySQL and JavaScript. 4th ed., e-book ed., O’Reilly Media, 2014. EPUB.

Wright, Jonathan V., and Lane Lenard. Why Stomach Acid Is Good for You: Natural Relief from Heartburn, Indigestion, Reflux, and GERD. E-book ed., M. Evans and Company, 2012

  • NOTES: This style guide spells ebook without the hyphen. However, within MLA a hyphen is required (“e-book.”)
  • In the publishing element, words that relate to the legal status should be removed. However, in the first example, “Company” is part of the name and not reflective of the legal status. The legal name of this publisher is M. Evans and Company, Inc., and Inc. has been removed from the citation.

Print Magazine Articles

Gallivan, Joseph. “Against the Odds.” Oregon Humanities, summer 2008, pp. 16-24.

  • NOTE: A season (like “summer,” in this example) in MLA ninth edition is in lowercase if it follows a comma.

Online Magazine Articles

Bilger, Burkhard. “The Height Gap.” The New Yorker, 5 Apr. 2004, www.newyorker.com/magazine/2004/04/05/the-height-gap.

Print Journal Articles

  • NOTE: If the journal does not use volume numbers, cite the issue numbers only.

Pasquaretta, Paul. “On the Indianness’ of Bingo: Gambling and the Native American Community.” Critical Inquiry, vol. 20, no.4, 1994, pp. 151-187.

Online Journal Articles

  • NOTE: MLA now requires full URLs for online material. However, if your article includes a DOI (digital object identifier), that information should be provided instead of the URL.

Collins, Ross. “Writing and Desire: Synthesizing Rhetorical Theories of Genre and Lacanian Theories of the Unconscious.” Composition Forum, vol. 33, Spring 2016, compositionforum.com/issue/33/writing-desire.php.

Article From a Database

  • NOTE: MLA now requires full URLs for online material. You should look for a stable link to the article within the database. However, if your article includes a DOI (digital object identifier), that information should be provided instead of the URL.

Goldman, Anne. “Questions of Transport: Reading Primo Levi Reading Dante.” The Georgia Review, vol. 64, no. 1, Spring 2010, pp. 69-88. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/41403188.

Print Newspaper

  • Works with nonconsecutive pagination (“continued on…”) should be cited with the first page on which the article appears, followed by +, as in the example below.
  • Works with consecutive pagination should be cited with the full range of pages: pp. 18-19, for example.

Williams, Joy. “Rogue Territory.” The New York Times Book Review, 9 Nov. 2014, pp. 1+.

Online Newspaper

St. Fleur, Nicholas. “City Bees Stick to a Flower Diet Rather Than Slurp Up Soda.” The New York Times, 19 May 2016, www.nytimes.com/2016/05/21/science/urban-bees-diet-flowers-soda.html.

Works on Websites

Page, Post, or Article on a Website

Hollmichel, Stephanie. “The Reading Brain: Differences between Digital and Print.” So Many Books, 25 Apr. 2013, somanybooksblog.com/2013/04/25/the-reading-brain-differences-between-digital-and-print/.

From a Book

Poe, Edgar Allan. “The Masque of the Red Death.” The Complete Works of Edgar Allan Poe, edited by James A. Harrison, vol. 4, Thomas Y. Crowell, 1902, pp. 250-58. HathiTrust Digital Library, hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.3192409574368.

On a Repository or Preprint Server

Wang, Living, et al. “Using Mobility Data to Understand and Forecast COVID19 Dynamics.” MedRxiv: The Preprint Server for Health Sciences, 15 Dec. 2020, https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.12.13.20248129. Preprint.

Work with No Publication Date

  • include a date of access if there is no listed publication date for your web source

Beaton, Kate. “The Secret Garden.” Hark! A Vagrant, www.harkavagrant.com/index.php?id=350. Accessed 17 Jan. 2017.

From the Comment Section

Max the Pen. Comment on “Why They’re Wrong.” The Economist, 29 Sept. 2016, 6:06 p.m., www.economist.com/node/21707926/comments.

Audiovisual Works

Audiobook

Lee, Harper. To Kill a Mockingbird. Narrated by Sissy Spacek, audiobook ed., unabridged ed., HarperAudio, 8 July 2014.

Song From an Album

  • Clarify the format you used to listen to the song, or include website information if listened online

Snail Mail. “Thinning.” Habit, Sister Polygon Records, 2016. Vinyl EP.

Snail Mail. “Thinning.” Bandcamp, snailmailbaltimore.bandcamp.com

Podcast

  • If you listened to the podcast on an app such as iTunes, list the name of the app in the “Version” slot and provide the other information you see displayed on your device.
  • If you listened to the podcast form a website, include the URL after the date.

“Yiyun Li Reads ‘On the Street Where You Live.'” The Writer’s Voice: New Fiction from The New Yorker, hosted by Deborah Treisman, podcast ed., The New Yorker, WNYC, 3 Jan. 2017. iTunes app.

Film or Movie

  • If you viewed the film in theaters, cite as below:

Opening Night. Directed by John Cassavetes, Faces Distribution, 1977.

  • If you viewed the film through an app or streaming service indicate the app or streaming service in the optional element slot at the end of the citation:

Opening Night. Directed by John Cassavetes, Faces Distribution, 1977. Netflix, www.netflix.com.

Television Episode Viewed as Broadcast

“Hush.” 1999. Buffy the Vampire Slayer: The Complete Fourth Season, created by Joss Whedon, season 4, episode 10, Mutant Enemy / WB Television Network, 14 Dec. 1999.

Television Episode Viewed on a Website or Streaming Service

“I, Borg.” Star Trek: The Next Generation, season 5, episode 23, Paramount Pictures, 1992. Netflix, www.netflix.com.

Television Episode Viewed on Physical Media

“Hush.” 1999. Buffy the Vampire Slayer: The Complete Fourth Season, created by Joss Whedon, season 4, episode 10, Mutant Enemy / Twentieth Century Fox, 2003, disc 3. DVD.

Video on a Sharing Site (like YouTube):

“What is the MLA International Bibliography?” Vimeo, uploaded by MLA International Bibliography, 14 Oct. 2016, Vimeo.com/187399565.

A Photograph Viewed in Person

Cameron, Julia Margaret. Alfred, Lord Tennyson. 1866, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.

A Painting Viewed Online

Bearden, Romare. The Train. 1975. MOMA, www.moma.org/collection/works/65232?locale=en.

An Untitled Image from a Print Magazine

Karasik, Paul. Cartoon. The New Yorker, 14 Apr. 2008, p. 49.

Theses & Dissertations

Samuelson, Michael Lynn. Contending with Foucault. 2003. Florida State U, dissertation.

Samuelson, Michael Lynn. Contending with Foucault. 2003. Florida State U, dissertation, ProQuest, search.proquest.com/docview/502312254.

Classroom Materials

Syllabus

Syllabus for Social Networking in the Scriptorium. Taught by Alex Mueller, spring 2014, U of Massachusetts, Boston.

On a Learning Management System (like Blackboard)

“Slides 040720.” Introduction to Digital Media Theory, taught by Kathleen Fitzpatrick. D2L, Michigan State U, 7 Apr. 2020, d2l.msu.edu/d2l/le/content/909183/viewContent/8746820/View.

In a Printed Course Pack

Jackson, Shirley. “The Lottery.” Course pack for English 285: American Short Story Writers, compiled by Anne Smith, spring 2015, Iowa State U.

In an Open Textbook (Pressbooks):

Bunn, Mike. “How to Read Like a Writer.” CU Write: The Cameron Composition Textbook. Online Consortium of Oklahoma, https://open.ocolearnok.org/cuwrite/chapter/how-to-read-like-a-writer/. Accessed 25 Feb. 2022.

Email, Text Messages, and Social Media

Emails and Text Messages

  • NOTE: MLA style includes a hypen in the word e-mail.

Elahi, Nareen. E-mail to Standards Committee. 15 Jan. 2019.

Lemuelson, Erik. Text message to the author. 3 May 2018.

Pierson, Collette. E-mail to the author. 1 June 2019.

Zamora, Estelle. E-mail to Penny Kinkaid. 3 May 2018.

Email Newsletters

“Member Success Stories.” The MLA Commons Newsletter, Modern Language Association of America, 7 Sept. 2016. E-mail.

Social Media Posts

Fogarty, Mignon [@GrammarGirl]. “Every once in a while, that Gmail notice asking if you meant to reply to a 5-day-old message is quite helpful.” Twitter, 13 Feb. 2019, twitter.com/GrammarGirl/status/
1095734401550303232.

Ng, Celeste [@pronounced_ing]. Photo of letter from Shirley Jackson. Twitter, 22 Jan. 2018, twitter.com/pronounced_ing/status/
955528799357231104.

Chabon, Michael. “#rip Milton Glaser. I grew up in his work. So hard to pick a favorite, maybe this, which also features one of the many awesome typefaces he designed, Baby Teeth. #mahaliajackson #miltonglaser.” Instagram, 28 June 2020, www.instagram.com/p/CB-E9gngVwo/.

Thomas, Angie. Photo of burned copy of The Hate U Give. Instagram, 4 Dec. 2018, www.instagram.com/p/Bq_PaXKgqPw/.

Hamilton Videos [@hamilton.vods]. Video of King George in Hamilton. Instagram, 5 July 2020, www.instagram.com/p/CCPEUJLDz0l/.

Obama, Michelle. Photo with students in Vietnam. Snapchat, www.snapchat.com/add/michelleobama. Accessed 14 July 2020.

Wilson, Rebel. Video of tire-flipping exercise. Snapchat, 14 July 2020, www.snapchat.com/add/rebelwilsonsnap.

Government Publications

United States, Congress, House, Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence. Al-Qaeda: The Many Faces of an Islamist Extremist Threat. Government Printing Office, 2006. 109th Congress, 2nd session, House Report 615.

United States, Congress. Public Law 111-122. United States Statutes at Large, vol. 123, 2009, pp. 3480-82. U.S. Government Publishing Office, www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-123/pdf/STATUTE-123.pdf.

United States Code. Legal Information Institute, Cornell Law School, www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text.

Title 17. United States Code, U.S. Government Publishing Office, 2011, www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/USCODE-2011-title17/html/USCODE-2011-title17.htm.

Wisconsin State, Legislature. Senate Bill 5. Wisconsin State Legislature, 20 Jan. 2017, docs.legis.wisconsin.gov/2017/related/proposals/sb5.

United States, Supreme Court. Brown v. Board of Education. 17 May 1954. Legal Information Institute, Cornell Law School, www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/347/483.

United States, Executive Office of the President [Barack Obama]. Executive order 13717: Establishing a Federal Earthquake Risk Management Standard. 2 Feb. 2016. Federal Register, vol. 81, no. 24, 5 Feb. 2016, pp. 6405-10, www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2016-02-05/pdf/2016-02475.pdf.

United Nations, General Assembly. Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Resolution 217 A, 10 Dec. 1948. United Nations, www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/. PDF download.

Interviews

Radio or Television

Barrett, Paul. Interview conducted by Terry Gross. Fresh Air, NPR, 1 Feb. 2013.

Interviewer’s Name Not Given

Nguyen, Việt Thanh. “Việt Thanh Nguyễn: By the Book.” The New York Times, 30 Jan. 2017, www. nytimes.com/2017/01/30/books/review/viet-thanh-nguyen-by-the-book.html. Interview.

Interviewer’s Name Given

Bacon, Francis. Interviews with Francis Bacon. Conducted by David Sylvester, Thames and Hudson, 2016.

Saro-Wiwa, Ken. “English Is the Hero.” Interview by Siri I. Teilanyo. No Condition is Permanent: Nigerian Writing and the Struggle for Democracy, edited by Holger Ehling and Claus-Peter Holste-von Mutius, Rodopi, 2001, pp. 13-19.

Unpublished

Salter, Margaret. Interview. Conducted by Susan Lang, 22 Oct. 2002.

Wexler, Jojo. Telephone interview with the author. 3 Nov. 2019.

Personal Communication

Santiago, Robert. Personal communication with author. 11 Feb. 2017.

 

Attributions

This chapter is based on the Excelsior Online Writing Lab Citation & Documentation guide, with additional information from the MLA Handbook, 9th edition, added and edited by Carie Schneider.

“Citation & Documentation.” Excelsior Online Writing Lab, 2022. https://owl.excelsior.edu/citation-and-documentation/.

Modern Language Association of America. MLA Handbook, 9th ed., Modern Language Association of America, 2021.

 

For more information on MLA and APA style, see the links collected in “Online Citation & Style Guides” at the beginning of this textbook.

This chapter was built on content from Excelsior OWL (https://owl.excelsior.edu/), with additional MLA citation examples written by Carie Schneider.

About the authors

name: Excelsior Online Writing Lab

institution: Excelsior University

website: https://owl.excelsior.edu

name: Carie Schneider

institution: Director of Composition, Cameron University

License

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APA & MLA Citation & Documentation Copyright © by Excelsior Online Writing Lab and Carie Schneider is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

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